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/88f. 



PHARMACEUTICAL, anatomical and chemical lexicon. 


THE 


NATIONAL FUNERAL DIRECTORS’ 


n 


OFFICIAL TEXT BOOK, 


EMBRACING: 


A DICTIONARY OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCE WTTII A CONCISE EXPLANATION OF TIIE 
VARIOUS SUBJECTS AND TERMS OF PHARMACY, ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY 
AND CHEMISTRY, SO FAR AS THEY APPLY TO THE PRESERVATION 
OF THE HUMAN BODY, WITH ALL THE METHODS IN 
USE FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE DEAD 
THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. 


PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE 


Funeral Directors’ Association of the United States and Canada. 


“A WORK THAT IS MODERN AND RELIABLE AS A STANDARD.” 

/ •> . ; / 

ly ' 

COMPILED FROM THE MOST RELIABLE SOURCES BY 


H. SAMSON, Esq., President of the National Funeral Directors' Association , 
O. N. CRANE, Ex-President of the National Funeral Directors' Association , 
A. B. PERRIGO, Secretary of the National Funeral Directors' Association , 


Committee. 


ASSISTED BY 


MARCUS P. HATFIELD, A. M., M. D. 


Chicago Medical College. 


, 1 » 

t 

CHICAGO : 



DONOHUE & IIENNEBERRY, PRINTERS AND BINDERS. 

1886. 





i{ i\Y^3 

A 



COPYRIGHT, 

1886, 


BY A. B. PERRIGO 






TO THE MEMORY 

OP 

THE UNKNOWN EMBALMER, 


BY WHOSE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL, FOIl MORE THAN THREE THOUSAND YEARS THE 
BODY OF RAMESES II.— THE P11AROAH, WHOSE DAUGHTER ADOPTED MOSES — 

HAS BEEN SO PERFECTLY PRESERVED THAT IT IS POSSIBLE HERE¬ 
WITH TO PRESENT TO THE READERS OF THIS BOOK 
A PHOTO-ENGRAVING OF THE SAME. 


Rameses II. (1404-1341 b.c.). 

“ After the lapse of tliirty-tliree centuries, the face of him who made the lives of* 
the Hebrews bitter, with hard service in mortar and brick, still preserves the haughty 
features of one from whose anger Moses can readily be believed to have fled into 
Midian.”— Graphic, July 1886 . 



3 









■ 





























' 




























. 













PBEFACE. 


A T the meeting of the National Funeral Directors' Association held 
in Washington, October, 1885, a committee was appointed to 
prepare a “set of text-books that will embrace education, mechanical 
art, floral art, etiquette, law of the different states in regard to funerals, 
shades and shadows, fabrics and fraternal courtesy, how to organize a 
local, or county association, with by-laws and constitution, the toilet and 
dress of a funeral director with full instruction in regard to the profes¬ 
sional duties of a funeral director and his assistants." Also a “dictionary 
of pharmaceutical science, with a concise explanation of the various sub¬ 
jects and terms of pharmacy, anatomy, physiology and chemistry, so far as 
they apply to the preservation of the human body, with all the methods 
in use for the preservation of the dead throughout the world — a work 
that will be modern and reliable as a standard." (Official records, 
fourth annual convention, pages 53, 54.) In accordance with the above 
the undersigned committee, after due study of the scope of such a 
work as contemplated in the last clause of the report, have prepared 
with the aid of the best talent in its various departments a compendium 
especially adapted to the needs of the progressive funeral director. 

The need of such a handbook is fully demonstrated by the numerous 
imperfect works of this character put upon the market by the various 
manufacturers of funeral supplies. None of these, however, have been 
projected upon the encyclopedic character and liberal outlay of the 
present work, on which, as a representative of the national association, 
no pains, or expense, have been spared to make it as nearly perfect as 
possible in all its parts. Each section constitutes a book of great 
value to the profession, and conjointly they represent the essentials of a 
rare and expensive professional library such as would be hardly possible 
for one to possess, however much he might desire it. 

In the preparation of this work, in addition to the assistance men¬ 
tioned upon the title page, the committee has been materially aided by 
Dr. G. Brown Goode of the National Museum, and Dr. D. S. Lamb of 
the United States Naval Museum at Washington, Dr. Peter H. Bryce of 
Toronto, Canada; and Prof. J. T. Hatfield of Evanston, to the last of 
whom the Lexicon owes much of its value. 

The official Text-Book being exactly what it purports to be, a col- 

5 



6 


PREFACE. 


lection from all all available sources of the facts necessary for the proper 
performance of the embalmed art, the compilers lay no claim to origi¬ 
nality of composition. They have gathered freely from the common 
fund of scientific knowledge whatever seemed to them of value or of 
interest to the progressive undertaker, and in so doing have endeavored 
to give credit whenever it was honestly due, without at the same time 
burdening the work with a multitude of cross references. In this 
connection we desire especially to acknowledge the frequent use that has 
been made in the preparation of Section III. of Gorup-Besanez^s “Physio¬ 
logical Chemistry,” and Prof. Victor C. Vaughan^s Chemical Physiology, 
without which it could scarcefy have been written. jSTor ought we to 
forget here to mention the invaluable assistance of our artist, William 
Ottmann of Chicago, who cheerfully reproduced his original drawings 
after their destruction by fire, and by his indefatigable care and fine 
artistic ability has succeeded in illustrating this work with what we 
unhesitatingly claim to be the finest and most accurate anatomical 
chromo lithographs yet produced in America. 

H. Samson, 

0. N. Crane, 

A. B. Perrigo, 
Committee. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


I. Historical account of the various methods adopted for the disposal of 


the dead, viz. : exposure, cremation, inhumation and embalmment, as 
practiced from the earliest times to the present day. 11-51 

II. Anatomy, physiology and histology of the human body, so far as re¬ 

quired for the embalmer’s art, also the proofs of death, and the best 
method of making an autopsy, when required. 52-107 

III. Brief outline of general chemistry, and the chemistry of the constitu¬ 
ents of the human body, including the phenomena of decomposition and 

the conditions that hasten or retard it.108-234 

IV. Bacteria and their relation to putrefaction with a consideration of the 


intermediate and final products of putrefaction, with tables of the same. .235-273 

V. Modern embalming and the best methods for employing the same, to¬ 
gether with a list of all Engli^i and American patents for such use, and 
the methods employed in the medical schools at home and abroad for the 


preservation of anatomical material.275-314 

VI. Meritorious embalming compounds, antiseptics and disinfectants.315-342 


VI. Lexicon, pharmaceutical, anatomical and chemical, together with a 
glos sary of diseases, and the precautions to be observed in the case of 
those dying from each, and also a full list of poisons and antidotes, and 


the treatment of poisoning originating from septic inoculation..'.343-532 

VIII. Alphabetical list of all antiseptics, disinfectants and sporicides, 

ancient and modern, including bleaching and deodorizing agents and the 
best means of preventing the spread of infectious diseases.533- 

IX. Bibliography and index. 


7 

















SECTION I. 


A BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNT 


OF THE 


VARIOUS METHODS ADOPTED 

FOR THE 

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. 


I. Exposure. 

II. Cremation. 

III. Inhumation. 

IV. Embalming. 



9 













MODES OF BURIAL. 


A BULKY volume could easily be written on the ceremonies observed 
at the time of death and burial by the various tribes and races of 
the world, civilized and uncivilized. Nothing that human ingenuity can 
devise, or affection suggest, has been left undone to express grief at the 
loss of the dead, or to provide for their future welfare. At such times 
grief finds public expression in fasting, unkempt hair, rags, sackcloth and 
ashes, or daubing the body with dust and pigments. Mutilation of the body 
is also an exceedingly frequent practice among barbarous nations whether 
done by cutting, as of old in Canaan, or as is practiced in New Zealand 
and. in the East Indies at the present da}L 

Cutting off fingers and toes, knocking out teeth (Hawaians), or even 
suicide are considered the highest marks of respect that can be paid to 
the dead by savage tribes. Among almost all of these nations sacrifices of 
one kind or another are also offered in honor of the dead. These con¬ 
sist of provisions of the most varied character, meat, drink, weapons, 
favorite horses, dogs, servants, and wives. All of these customs are prac¬ 
ticed either with the hope that the deceased may make use of these ob¬ 
jects in a future world, or that malevolent spirits may be propitiated by 
costly gifts. Thus understood, they are frequently exceedingly touching 
and beautiful, as when the Laplander places flint, tinder and steel by his 
dead to furnish him fire and light in another world, or when the Chip¬ 
pewa kindles fires nightly to light the spirits on their way, or the Pomera¬ 
nian places straw in the graveyard to serve as resting places for the spirit 
wearied by its long travel. With the same thought many of the North 
American Indians present their dead with moccasins and even bits of 
deer skin and needles to patch them with, lest their shoes should wear 
out on the long journey, and in Greenland it is the custom to bury with 
a little child a dog also, because they say a dog will find his way any¬ 
where, and the Arabs with similar intention leave a camel to die over the 
grave of a friend. 

The sacrifice of horses, dogs, and slaves at the death of a king some¬ 
times reaches to hundreds in Africa. In Dahomey it is said that these 
sacrifices are often kept up for an entire year. Until very recent times 
even in so enlightened a country as Japan, it was the custom to order 
twenty or thirty slaves to commit hari-kari at the death of the nobleman 

11 








12 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


to whose estate they happened to be attached, and friends are no better off 
in Fiji, where it is the correct thing for them to be strangled along with 
the wives and slaves of the deceased. 

Wife-burning at present is confined to the Dark Continent, but at one 
time it was the almost universal custom among eastern nations and until 
comparatively recent times w r as largely practiced in Ilindoostan. Suttee, 
as it is there named, has been broken up only by the most stringent laws 
on the part of the English government during the past thirty years. Before 
that time the widow was expected to dress herself in her finest clothes 
and lie down by the side of her deceased husband on the funeral pile, 
where she was securely tied with ropes. The eldest son of the dead man 
then came forward with a torch and applied it to the pyre which had 
been saturated with oil so as to make it burn quickly. As the flames 
arose, the crowd raised a great shout, and the noise of drums was added, 
ostensibly in honor of the heroism of the woman, but really to drown her 
cries. The Quakeolith Indians practice semi-suttee, so to speak, for the 
wife is tied to the stake at which her husband is cremated, where she is 
left until half roasted, being dragged away just in time to save her life. 
Among many savage tribes the burial of women is different from that of 
the men, among the Colchicans, for instance, the women were buried and 
the corpses of the men suspended in the trees, and the Ghonds burn 
their men and bury their women. The Bongas bury men with their faces 
to the north and women with their faces toward the south, for some in¬ 
explicable reason, for many of these burial customs can be as little ex¬ 
plained as the practice of the Greenlanders of taking the corpse through 
a window, or the Siamese through a newly-made hole in the wall. 
Others are simply puerile, as the old Egyptian custom of turning the 
corpse around many times to make it so giddy that it should not know 
where it was going, or the habit of the Australians of pulling out the 
nails, lest the body should scratch its way back to earth again. The use 
of money—from the obolus of the Greeks to the millions recently lavished 
by the monarchs of Burmah—passports, sacrifices and masses for the re¬ 
pose of the dead are so varied in character that it would be useless here 
to discuss them in detail, for the object of this work is not properly a 
consideration of funeral rites and ceremonies, but of the various methods 
adopted for the final disposal of the dead. From the first death to the 
present time mankind lias been forced perpetually to consider this ques¬ 
tion, but as yet his ingenuity has devised but five methods, to wit: 

1. Exposure. 

2. Necropilagism. 

3. Cremation. 

4. Inhumation. 

5. Embalming. 



MODES OF BURIAL. 


13 


[1.] AERIAL AND OTHER EXPOSURE. 

Aerial Suspension was practiced by the ancient Scythians, who placed 
the dead body upon a carriage and carried it about to their different 
acquaintances, who prepared a feast for the corpse and its attendants, the 
dead body being served exactly as the others. The body must have been 
embalmed, for it was thus carried about, as a rule, for forty days, and 
then interred, although some suspended their dead from trees and left 
them thus to putrefy, thinking with Plutarch, “ Of what consequence is 
it, whether one rots in the earth or upon it ?” And history repeats itself, 
for today the savages of New Holland hang their corpses in baskets on 
the trees, and leave them to the fate of the Colchican dead, who, as history 
tells us, were in former times also suspended from the trees. 

Aerial sepulture , according to Dr. Yarrow, is one of the methods 
adopted by the North American Indians, and certain tribes use for this 
purpose lodges on a platform, or an elevated tent constructed of buffalo 
hides and brush. Others employ coffins, or canoes, raised from the earth 
on scaffolds. 

Surface burial, or direct exposure, is now resorted to only by the 
rudest tribes, who either leave their dead where they die, like the Caffirs, 
and move their camps to new locations, or, like the more savage Wany- 
amwesi, carry their dying into the forest and there leave them. In Zanzi¬ 
bar only those dying in battle are left thus exposed, and in the Sahara from 
necessity this is often the only resource. Hardly different is the custom 
of the Moors, who lightly cover the body with stones, or, where these are 
wanting, simply with a heap of prickly thorns. To a limited extent this 
is also employed by some of the North American Indians. 

[2.] 2NECROPH AGISM, 

To coin a word, is here employed to include all methods by which the 
aid of wild beasts, birds, or fishes, is utilized in the disposal of the dead. 
Under this head should also be included cannibalism or the Galatian 
fashion of eating one^s deceased friends, for it is said by Herodotus that 
“the Calatians being asked by Darius on what terms they would consent 
to burn the bodies of their parents, burst into tears and begged the king 
to inform them why he thought they were so deficient in reverence to 
their honored parents as to suppose that they would do otherwise than to 
eat their hallowed remains.” 

Akin to these was Queen Artemisia, who is said to have mingled the 
ashes of her beloved Mausoleus with wine and drank it as a mark of affec¬ 
tion. The aboriginal Australians use, like the ancient Norsemen, the 
skulls of their deceased warriors as drinking cups, and to this day certain 
of the African tribes grind the bones of their dead, and in accordance 



14 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


with the most advanced physiology, mingle them with their food. 
History tells ns that the Balearians made the same final disposition of 
their dead, whom they first chojDped and potted. (Strother.) And recent 
African travelers report that the unfortunate priests in Dahomey are 
required to eat, or pretend to eat, the bodies of those who have been 
killed by lightning. A similar duty falls to the lot of the priests in 
Tartary where the very wealthy are sometimes burnt with great solem¬ 
nity, after which the ashes are made into cakes and eaten by the priests. 

Aquatic burial, or the destruction of the body by the aid of water and 
fishes, is comparatively rare, but it was practiced by the ancient Ichthy- 
ophagi, whom Herodotus says placed their dead in the sea, hoping thus 
to get rid at the same time of the corpse and its ghost as well. The 
Oronoco Indians prepare their corpses for burial by fastening the body 
with a rope to a tree near a river, into which they drop the body for 
twenty-four hours, in which time the voracious fishes completely skele¬ 
tonize it by eating the fiesli away from the bones. 

Perhaps, under this same head, we ought to include the practice of 
the inhabitants of the Island of Coos, whose custom was to burn their 
dead, pulverize their ashes, and then cast them into the sea. The 
Indians of our own country at times resort to aquatic burial, depositing 
the corpse in a canoe, which they set afloat on some lake or stream remote 
from their habitations, for they are very careful not to pollute thus any 
water they may use for drinking purposes. 

The destruction of the dead by means of wild beasts was not a very 
unusual practice in former times, for the Parthians, Medes, Iberians and 
Caspians had such a horror of the corruption and decomposition of the 
dead, and of their being eaten bv worms, that thev threw the bodies into 
the open fields to be devoured by wild beasts, believing that those so 
devoured would not be entirely annihilated, but enjo}'' a partial life in 
their living sepulchres. The Bactrians kept dogs for this especial pur¬ 
pose, and in Thibet there is said to be a sacred race of puppies preserved 
for the same use. Dogs are similarly utilized by the Kamtchatkans, who 
take special comfort in this practice, from the fact that they believe that 
all those eaten by dogs here will hereafter drive fine ones in the other 
world. 

The careless method of surface burial resorted to by the Moham¬ 
medans in Eastern countries really resolves itself into the dead being 
devoured by wild dogs and jackals, but the only people who now publicly 
employ wild beasts for this purpose are the Parsees or the descendants of 
the ancient Persians, who threw out their dead on the roads, and if 
promptly devoured by the wild beasts, it was esteemed a great honor. If 
this did not happen, it was a great misfortune, for they believed that one 
must have been very bad if even the beasts refused to touch them, and 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


15 


the relatives of the dead took it as a presage of some great misfortune 
which was imminent, thinking that the souls which had inhabited the 
bodies, being dragged down to hell, would not fail to return and trouble 
them. 


PARSEE BURIAL. 

The modern Parsees expose the bodies of their dead to be devoured 
by vultures, because they consider this method most appropriate and 
satisfactory, for, in accordance with Zoroaster's teachings, they consider 
lire too sacred to be put to any such ignoble use, and the burial of the 
dead is a defilement and an injury to the earth, whom they consider the 
mother of mankind. 

The methods adopted by them for this purpose are so unusual that we 
feel at liberty to quote somewhat at length from Prof. Monier Williams' 
account of the Towers of Silence, as they are called, located at Calcutta: 

“ No English nobleman's garden could be better kept, and no pen can 
do justice to the glories of its flowering shrubs, cypresses and palms. It 
seemed the very ideal, not only of a place of sacred silence, but of peace¬ 
ful rest. The towers are five in number, of black granite, and con¬ 
structed with great solidity. The oldest was built 200 years since, and is 
the smallest, being used only for a certain family. The next oldest was 
erected in 1756, the others later. Though wholly destitute of ornament 
and even the simplest moldings, the parapet of each tower possesses an 
extraordinary coping, which instantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It 
is a coping formed, not of dead stone, but of living vultures. These 
birds, on the occasion of my visit, had settled themselves, side by side, in 
perfect order and in a complete circle around the parapets of the towers, 
with their heads pointing inwards ; and so lazily did they sit there, and 
so motionless was their whole mien, that, except for their color, they 
might have been carved out of the stone work. 

“ One of the towers is a round column, or massive cylinder, twelve or 
fourteen feet high, and at least forty feet in diameter, built of solid 
stone, except in the center, where a well five or six feet across leads 
down to an excavation under masonry, with four drains at right angles 
to each other, terminated with holes filled with charcoal. Pound this 
solid cylinder is the stone parapet, ten or twelve feet high, which con¬ 
ceals the interior. The upper surface of the solid stone work is divided 
into seventy-two compartments, or open receptacles, radiating like the 
spokes of a wheel from the central wall, and arranged in three concentric 
rings, separated by narrow ridges of stone, grooved to act as channels for 
conveying all moisture from the receptacles into the well, and thus to the 
lower drains. Each circle of the open compartments is divided from the 
next by a pathway, making three circular pathways, and these crossed by 




16 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


another conducting from the exterior door which admits the corpse- 
bearer. While engaged in examining the work, a sudden stir among the 
vultures made us raise our heads. At least a hundred birds, collected 
around one of the towers, began to show symptoms of excitement, while 
others swooped down from the neighboring trees. A funeral was seen 
to be approaching. The body, swathed in a white sheet, is placed in a 
curved metal trough, open at both ends, and the corpse-bearers, dressed 
in pure white garments, proceeded with it towards the towers. The 
funeral I witnessed was that of a child. When the two corpse-bearers 
reached the path leading by a steep incline to the door of the tower, the 
mourners, about eight in number, turned back and entered one of the 
prayer houses. The two bearers speedily unlocked the door, reverently 
conveyed the body of the child into the interior, and, unseen by any one, 
laid it uncovered in one of the receptacles nearest the central wall. In 
two minutes they reappeared with the empty bier and white cloth, and 
scarcely had they closed the door, when a dozen vultures swoo];>ed down 
upon the body and were rapidly followed by others. In five minutes 
more the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again on the para¬ 
pet. They had left nothing behind but a skeleton.” 

In Siam a similar practice is sometimes adopted, but it there is 
reserved for the very poorest, whose flesh is cut from their bones and 
thrown to the birds to be devoured. The general custom, however, of 
the Siamese, as with the majority of the Eastern nations, where the 
family can afford it, is 

[3.] CREMATION. 

This, according to Dr. Ericksen, practiced from the earliest times 
by the inhabitants of the interior of Asia, by the Thracians, Celts, 
and others, is now the universal custom among the Siamese, Burmese, 
Cambogians and Peguans. So general is the custom among these latter 
people that a cemetery is almost unknown to them, for only their 
very jioor, or those too close to pay the requisite fees, are ever buried. 

. The Siamese first embalm, after an imperfect fashion, removing only the 
intestines, and place the body in coffin, where it is kept in state four, six, 
thirty days—never longer, according to the rank of the family, the latter 
period being allowed only to the very wealthy. During the time the 
body lies in state it is attended by the relatives, who make offerings and 
daily prostrations to it. When at last the time for cremation arrives, the 
body is decked with jewelry and is laid in an appropriate receptacle on 
the summit of a combustible pyramid, upon which almost fabulous 
amounts of money are expended, if the pyre belongs to the royal family. 
At the burning, bundles of clothes are thrown over the fire, and mirth 
and music are at their height, until the combustion is finished, when the 




MODES OF BUlilAL. 


17 


ashes are gathered by the officiating priest into a golden urn, if the 

family is able to afford it. 

«/ 

HINDOOS. 

Among the Hindoos funeral customs • do not differ materially from 
the Siamese. Cremation is the general practice, except with the religious 
orders who are buried sitting. The body is bathed, perfumed, and 
decked with flowers, before it is carried to the pyre, which is four to five 
feet high, strewn with flowers and sprinkled with sweet-smelling oils. 
Formerly Suttee, or the burning of the widow with the body of her hus¬ 
band, was very generally practiced in India. This arose, not from coun¬ 
tenance by native law, but probably from a misunderstanding of some of 
the passages in their sacred books, one of which says: “ She who follows 
her husband to another world shall dwell in the region of joy for 30,000,- . 
000 years, or as many as there are hairs upon the human body.” Some 
thirty years ago the East India Company took energetic measures to sup¬ 
press this custom. It may be said to have been successfully abolished, 
although from habit and superstition Suttee still occasionally takes place. 

It is the great desire of every Hindoo to die in sight of the river 
Ganges and to have his ashes carried to the sea by its waters; hence it is 
the rule to carry those who are very sick to its banks, there to await 
death in little bamboo huts erected for that purpose. If death is tardy, 
they pour water on the face of the sick one and fdl his mouth with mud 
to expedite the process, but if he should recover, which sometimes hap¬ 
pens, after this ceremony is performed, the friends will not recognize 
him, and he is ever after treated as an outcast; his property is divided 
among his heirs, and he is considered legally dead, without any rights 
whatever. No one will associate with him, and he finds life such a bur¬ 
den that lie is usually glad to end his troubles by throwing himself into 
the river. 

The favorite places for incineration are the Burning Ghauts, or stairs, 
situated upon the borders of the Ganges or its branches, into which the 
ashes are thrown after cremation. The bodies to be burned are placed on 
piles of wood, and the torch is applied by one of the relatives of the 
deceased. If the person is wealthy, there is generally a large assem¬ 
blage of mourners, some of them being relatives, and others hired for the 
occasion; all are dressed in white robes of a peculiar pattern, such as are 
worn only by mourners, and the sounds of lamentation are often very 
loud and prolonged. But if the deceased individual was poor the cere¬ 
mony is very brief, and there are no mourners, nor is the funeral pile as 
large as in the other case. 

“It is said that formerly the priests used to put out the fires before 
the bodies were half consumed, in order to save the wood; the remains 


18 


MODES OE BURIAL. 


were then thrown into the river and floated down among or past the ship¬ 
ping. There were so many comjflaints of the disagreeable sights forced 
upon those who were coming up the river, that the government has of 
late years stationed an officer at the Burning Ghauts to see that the work 
is properly done, and only the ashes find their way into the Ganges. 
Efforts have also been made by the government to introduce suitable 
apparatuses for burning the dead, but the Hindoos still cling tenaciously 
to the primitive custom of their forefathers, and the furnaces are used only 
by the more intelligent Brahmins. In Japan the practice of cremation 
was common from the earliest times, and prevails yet to-day, although not 
universally, “ There is a crematorium in Kioto; generally, however, the 
corpses are cremated on wooden fagots. The ingenious Japanese con¬ 
trive to concentrate the heat, and save the fuel at the same time, by 
covering the dead with a straw mat which has been previously thoroughly 
moistened with salt water.”— Malian . 

Among the Karens like the Chinese, everything connected with death 
is regarded with absolute hatred, all the books, clothing, etc., of the 
dead, being burned. The body, even the face, is wrapped in a coarse white 
cloth, and the corpse laid out on a bench in an outer room; rice, fruit, 
tobacco and betel nut are placed at the head and feet, together with a 
drinking-cup, mug and spoon, in a basket, and the deceased spirit is 
invited to come and partake freely, while the nearest relatives surround 
the body with wails and lamentations for thirty-six hours before crema¬ 
tion. 

At the burning the body is separated from the fuel by a sort of kiln 
designed to keep the ashes of the body separate from that of the wood. 
Before this is completed, the friends reserve some small bone, usually 
that of a finger, for subsequent funeral ceremonies held four days later, 
at which time the bone and the urn containing the ashes are finally laid 
away in separate graves ; the former always being kept a profound secret 
(Feudge). 

GREEKS AND ROMANS. 

Among the Greeks burning was the almost universal custom. The body 
after death was anointed, crowned with flowers, handsomely dressed, 
usually in white, and laid in state with an obolus in its mouth for Cha¬ 
ron and a honey cake for Cerberus. 

These offices for the dead were usually performed by the female rela¬ 
tives, after which the other kinsfolks gathered around the bed and for 
three days lamented. On the third day the body was carried out in 
a coffin, usually of earthenware, before sunrise, the men walking before 
it, the women and the hired mourners behind. The body was burned and 
buried outside of the town. HomeEs narration of the burning of Pa- 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


19 


troclus gives so accurate a description of the method then in use, that it 
is quoted entire in Bryant’s translation. The passage referred to occurs 
in the twenty-third book of the “ Iliad” and is as follows: 

, “ They who had the dead in charge 

Remained, and heaped the wood and built a pyre 
A hundred feet each way from side to side. 

With sorrowful hearts they raised and laid the corpse 
Upon the summit. Then they flayed and dressed 
Before it many fadings of the flock. 

And oxen with curved feet and crooked horns. 

From these magnanimous AcniLLES took 

The fat, and covered with it carefully 

The dead from head to foot. Beside the bier 

And leaning toward it, jars of honey and oil 

He placed, and flung, with-many a deep-drawn sigh, 

Twelve liigh-uecked steeds upon the pile. 

Nine hounds 

There were, which from the tables of the prince 
Were daily fed: of these Achilles struck 
The heads from two, and laid them on the wood, 

And after these, and last, twelve gallant sons 
Of the brave Trojans, butchered by the sword; 

For he was bent on evil. To the pile 
He put the iron violence of fire. 

And, wailing, called by name the friend he loved. 

They quenched with dark red wine 

The pyre, where’er the flames had spread, and where 

Lay the deep ashes; then, with many tears, 

Gathered the white bones of their gentle friend, 

And laid them in a golden vase, wrapped round 
With caul, a double fold. Within the tents 
They placed them softly, wrapped in delicate lawn; 

Then drew a circle for the sepulchre, 

And, laying its foundations to enclose 
The pyre, they heaped the earth, and, having reared 
A mound, withdrew.” 

Funeral sacrifices were offered on the third, ninth, and thirtieth days 
after the first ceremonies. On the thirtieth day the mourning ended and 
the relatives reappeared in public again. It was customary, as with us, to 
visit the tombs of the dead from time to time and to ornament them 
with garlands. 

ROMAN AND MODERN CREMATION. 

From Greece, by way of Latium, cremation reached Rome, where it 
was practiced from the time of the republic down to the fourth century. 


20 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


The process at Rome was substantially the same as that made use of at 
Athens—the pyre being resorted to in either case. At the time of death 
the nearest relative of an expiring Roman kissed him to receive his last 
breath, after which his eyes were closed and all present called upon him 
to restore him if possible to consciousness. The body was then washed 
in hot water and the undertaker sent for. The corpse was dressed in 
white and laid in state in the hall with feet toward the door. Branches 
of pine or cypress were hung at the door, like crape in time of mourning 
at present. * 

The body was attended to by hired undertakers (pollinctores) whose 
duties were to wash and clothe it in its richest or official robes, if its 
owner had possessed such, and if a crown had been received during life 
this was also added. The body then laid in state for eight days, for it 
was the custom of the Romans to allow putrefaction to actually begin 
before resorting to cremation, lest premature burial might take place 
and for the same reason during these days of watching they frequently 
called upon the dead by name with a loud voice. At first the funeral 
always took place at night, but as funeral processions became more 
elaborate they were held by day, and only those who wished to save 
expense were buried at night. 

On the eighth day the funeral took place, the body being car¬ 
ried in a stone coffin, or wrapped in a purple pall on a golden bier, 
attended with music and lamentation by hired mourners. Wax, 
ancestral images formed part of the procession and sometimes there were 
also representations of the life of the deceased by professional players. 
Usually there were also funeral services at some one of the temples and in 
the case of noted personages funeral orations pronounced by a friend 
from the public rostra, after which the relatives gathered at the funeral 
pyre. This by law must be constructed of unhewn logs, usually of some 
resinous wood as cypress, pine or yew, and to assist combustion costly 
perfumes and oils were poured lavishly upon the body. Plutarch, for 
instance, tells us that at the funeral of Sylla, so great a quantity of 
spices were brought by the women that it required two thousand 
baskets to contain them, and that they constructed of costly incense 
and cinnamon a statue of the deceased of magnificent size. 

All things having been properly arranged and the friends having 
again thrice called upon the dead, the nearest relative applied the torch 
to the pyre. 

After the burning was completed, the embers were quenched with 
wine or milk, wrapped in fine linen, and deposited in cinerary urns 
which were carefully cherished at home, or in the public columbaria. 
At Rome these funeral urns were placed upright, while in Greece they 
lay horizontally on the ground and were covered with rugs. In Greece 



MODES OF BURIAL. 


21 


the ashes were preserved in beautiful mortuary chambers in the houses 
or in public tombs, a custom that also obtained at Home, where colum¬ 
baria were maintained at public expense. These columbaria were subter¬ 
ranean chambers which served to hold the ashes of the deceased, the urns 
being deposited in niches, hewn out in the rock for that purpose. The rare 
beauty of those which may yet be seen in the eternal city, led to Haw¬ 
thorne’s famous remark that “he would not object to being decently 
pigeon-holed in a Homan tomb.” 


The last funeral fires in Home expired late in the fourth cen¬ 
tury, but in countries situated further north the custom of cremation 
was not abolished before 1300 a.d. In fact at one time cremation 
was almost universally practiced from the tropics to the extreme 
north. The Scandinavian nations, by the direct command of Odin upon 
his dying bed, incinerated, as did also the Saxons and Frisans. The Danish 
antiquarians describe an age of cremation which they think followed 
immediately their mound age and lasted until the ninth century. In 
Iceland there is still extant a proverb to the effect that no woman may be 
praised until after she is burned, and the Goths and Thuringians burned 
their dead until the seventh century. Pre-Christian German literature is 
full of allusions to cremation. 

The funeral pyre however, was so strongly discountenanced by 
the Christian church that as it became dominant, cremation became 
obsolete. The first’ modern plea for cremation is Sir Thomas Browne’s 
Hydriotaphia, written more than 200 years ago (1058). From that 
time until 1873 incineration was advocated by but few individuals, 
mostly physicians. But the cremation which they had in view was 
that on the pyre, a method a little less barbaric than interment. ITence, 
the agitation carried on so energetically had few practical results. 
Notable among these were the incineration of the poet Shelley, and his 
friend Williams, who were burned, by Lord Byron, Trelawny, and Leigh 
Hunt. 

In 1873, however, Professor Brunetti, of Padua, Italy, made ex¬ 
periments which led to the construction of the first crematory furnace, 
and thus scientific cremation was inaugurated. The results of Brunetti’s 
experiments were exhibited at the Vienna Exposition, where they 
attracted great attention. From there the burning of the dead in a 
scientific way spread and continues to propagate even in South America, 
Australia, and South Africa. 

When cremation was first advocated in this country in 1874, it met 
with a storm of ridicule and opposition. A Persian gentleman, then 
residing in New York City, wishing to burn the remains of his wife, 
was subjected to abuse and even personal violence from the hands of an 
ignorant mob, until at last he was obliged to bury her to save his 




22 


MODES OF BUKIAL. 


own life. A few years has changed., very greatly, public opinion on this 
subject, and this change has been largely brought about through the 
influence of Dr. Julius LeMoyne and Dr. J. M. Keller. The first fur¬ 
nace ever built for cremating the dead in the United States was erected 
by the former at Washington, Pa., while the persistent efforts of the 
latter has at last (May 6, 1886) obtained an expression of opinion in 
favor of cremation, in populous cities, from the American Medical 
Association. 

Incineration can now be performed by means of either gas, hot air, 
or the direct application of fire to the body, preferably the first 
method, which is carried on most satisfactorily by the use of natural gas 
in Pittsburgh and elsewhere. The retort must first be brought to a 
white heat, which, with natural gas, requires about ten hours. It is not 
necessary to divest the body of its clothing, or in any way to disarrange 
the ordinary arrangements for burial, for the corpse has only to be laid 
upon a board, one-half an inch thick and the length of the body, and 
placed upon a roller top table, provided also with castors. The body is 
then covered with an alum sheet, the doors of the retort opened, and the 
table pushed to the opening, where the board holding the body is easily 
propelled into the retort and the doors closed. The gas is turned off 
while this is being done, and not lighted again until the gases evolved 
from the body begin to burn from the heat of the white hot retort. 
This obviates all danger of explosion, and as soon as this danger is past 
the natural gas is again ignited, and in about an hour and a half the 
process is completed, and, if desired, the ashes can at once be drawn 
from the furnace. 

In view of these facts, whatever views a funeral director, as an indi¬ 
vidual, may adopt in regard to the best disposition of the dead, it is his 
duty, as a servant of the public, to be prepared and willing to serve his 
patrons in whatever way they desire. He is a very short-sighted business 
man who allows a cremation, or any other, society, looking towards 
reform in his profession, to be organized in the community in which he 
lives, without his convincing his neighbors that he is fully informed in 
regard to the facts. It is, moreover, his professional duty always to be 
the one best able to render the community any service that it may desire 
in the disposal of the dead. At the same time he should keep himself 
thoroughly posted in regard to all the arguments, pro and con, in the 
matter, and to this end we add those for anti-cremation , by its ablest 
advocate. Dr. Frank Hamilton, who says: 

“1. The danger to health and life from the present mode of burial 
when the inhumation has been properly made, has, by the advocates of 
cremation, been greatly overestimated, if, indeed, it can be said to exist 
at all. 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


23 


2. Cremation removes effectually one of the most important means 
of detecting certain crimes. 

3. The general sentiment of the community in which we live is 
opposed to cremation. 

Hence, it would be unnecessary, unwise, and unjust to impose cre¬ 
mation by legal enactments.”— Am. Lancet, Vol. x, Page 189. 

“ Other objections have been raised to the reform. Leaving aside the 
religious one, which is pronounced invalid by such men as Archdeacon 
Farrar, Heber Newton, and the Bishop of Manchester, we will take them 
up one by one, briefly. 

It is urged that the exhalations of cremation are unwholesome. But 
then, there are no dangerous exhalations. The enemies of incineration 
should remember that the gases from the corpse must repeatedly pass 
through an intense heat and improved smoke consumer before they are 
liberated. Thirty of the gases escaping from the Lancaster crematory were 
recently analyzed by a chemist and found to be perfectly harmless. In 
the gas furnaces absolutely no smoke nor odor escapes from the stacks 
during the process. 

It is further claimed that the burning of the dead would destroy the 
evidence of poisoning. Every crematorium nowin existence requires the 
certificates of two reputable physicians to the effect that the person 
about to be cremated died in a natural way, and when such testimony is not 
forthcoming, insists upon a careful autopsy. 

And finally the anti-cremationists assert that the universal practice 
of incineration would rob the earth of its ammonia, and would in the 
course of time, cause an ammonia famine. This favorite theory of Dr. 
Mohr, of Bonn, Germany, was refuted by the professor of chemistry at 
the University of Leyden, Holland: Thirteen of the most prominent 
chemists of Europe concurred in the opinion given by him. Dr. Mohr 
has evidently forgotten that ammonia can be manufactured artificially, 
and that nature derives a far greater supply of ammonia from decaying 
animals and vegetable than it ever will from humanity.”— Ericsson. 

And yet, satisfactory as is the theory and as are the results of 
modern cremation, civilization does not as yet take to it kindly. Call 
it prejudice, if you please, but the fact remains that the majority of 
English-speaking people heartily agree with Dr. Richardson when he 
says: 

“ I believe there is no mode of disposal of the dead that is so tran- 
quilizing and solacing at the moment to the living—as inhumation and 
embalming — and I am far more prepared to see the advancement 
of this mode * * * * * than of that by sharp, decisive 
fire. ” 


24 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


[4.] INHUMATION. 

According to Sir Chas. Lyell, in the most ancient times holes and 
caves were the first receptacles of human remains. A natural cavity in 
the ground, or a cave, was probably the first tomb, and very likely in 
such a one the body of Cain was laid, for the Scripture record speaks of 
his “blood crying from the ground.” But whether Cain was buried or 
not, inhumation was the general practice of 

The Jeivs. —Abraham, after the death of Sara, spake unto the sons 
of Heth * * * “ give me a possession of a burying place with you 

that I may bury my dead out of my sight.” He thereupon purchased 
the cave of Machpelali for money, “for a possession of a burying place ” 
(Gen: XXIV, 10) where we find that five others, one of whom was 
Abraham himself, were subsequently buried. 

JacoVs remains were transported from Egypt by his son Joseph with 
great pomp, and laid in Canaan, according to his desire made known 
before his death. Moses was buried in the valley of Moab ; Miriam, his 
sister, in the desert of Zin; Aaron in Mount Hor; Eleazer, his son, and 
Joshua, on the mountains of Ephraim. The bones of Joseph, who is 
the only one mentioned in Scripture as having been put in a coffin and 
by the children of Israel brought up out of Egypt, were buried in Shechem 
in a parcel of ground which Jacob had bought, three hundred years 
before, of the sons of Ilamar, and where he erected an altar to Jehovah. 

After the Israelites came into the quiet possession of the promised 
land and were brought under the requirements of their ceremonial laws, 
their habits in regard to the dead and their methods of sepulture were 
somewhat changed. According to the precepts of their law, the touch 
of a corpse rendered them unclean; for it was a maxim, not only with 
the Jews but with all the nations of the world, that holy places are pol¬ 
luted with the presence of dead carcasses, or of dead men's bones. When 
King Josiah desired to profane the altars dedicated to idols, he burned 
dead men’s bones upon them, taking them from sepulchres near by. 

The Jews buried their dead in various places. Their law made no 
provision for the mode, or place of interment. Sepulchres were in the 
towns and country, by the highways, in gardens and on mountains. 
Those belonging to the kings of Judah were in Jerusalem, and in the 
kings* gardens. Saul and his sons were burned, and in time of great 
plagues, bodies were cremated in the Vale of Tophet, for hygienic 
reasons. 

Ezekiel intimates that the mountain upon which the temple stood 
was polluted with the dead bodies of their kings. “The sepulchre 
which Josejfii of Arimathea provided for himself was in his garden ; that 
of Kachel was adjacent to the highway from Jerusalem to Bethlehem ; 
that of the Maccabees was at Modin ; the kings of Israel were buried in 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


25 


Samaria; Samuel, in his own house ; Moses, Aaron, Eleazer and Joshua 
in the mountains; and Deborah (Rebecca*s nurse), under the shade 
of trees. ** — Wickes. 

The Hebrews who were very careful in the burial of their dead, also 
resorted to embalming; for in Chronicles we learn of the death and 
burial of Asa (914 13. C.) “And they buried him in his own sepulchre, 
which he had made for himself in the City of David, and laid him in a 
bed which was filled with sweet odors; and divers kinds of spices pre¬ 
pared by the apothecaries* art.** In the New Testament we find that 
Joseph, by permission of Pilate, came and took the body of Jesus, and 
then came also Nicodemus, which at the first came to Jesus by night, 
and brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes about a hundred weight. 
“Then they took the body of Jesus, wound it in linen clothes and with 
spices as is the manner of the Jews at the present time.** It was con¬ 
sidered to be a great calamity to be deprived of burial and the Jews 
denied it not even to their enemies. 

The Jewish method of preparation for burial was simply to wash, 
shave and close the eyes and mouth of the deceased; then to anoint with 
costly, perfumes and place the body in a coffin, or wrap in a winding 
sheet, as was done with Lazarus, with spices and aromatics in great pro¬ 
fusion to hide the odors of putrefaction. At times they also filled the 
cavities of the body with myrrh aloes and frankincense and even with 
bitumin brought from the Dead Sea. 

The Chinese .—Of the primitive methods of the Chinese we have not 
as reliable information as of the Jews, but from the fact that they are the 
least changeable of all nations, it may be inferred that their present 
methods are not unlike those of former times. In modern China the 
body is coffined soon after death, a fan is placed in the hand and a piece 
of money in the mouth. A filial effort to preserve the body is part of 
their fashionable orthodoxy: accordingly they fasten up their dead in 
hermetically sealed coffins, which they make with tight joints and partly 
fill with lime, so that the corpse is sometimes kept in the house for years, 
or until the family is able to purchase a tomb, for a Chinaman will sell 
himself to years of hard labor to obtain the means to bury his parents, 
or to have his own body transported to his native soil after death, and 
each family strives to have its own burial place. In times of mourning, 
the Chinese hang long, white strips of cloth at the door as we do crape, 
and all who come to the funeral are attired in white, or with white 
patches tacked on their clothing, for white instead of black is their 
mourning color. With them the entire burial suit is often made years 
before death, and is of the same fashion as worn in life, for the Chinese 
use no shrouds and their coffins are often kept in their houses waiting 
for twenty years. A coffin is considered a very appropriate present from 



MODES OF BURIAL. 


20 


a dutiful son to a parent on any festal occasion, so that two or three are 
often seen at once in their houses. As soon as the body can be robed for 
burial, it is laid in the coffin and the lid fastened down at once, though, 
as with us, a large glass plate in the front allows a sight of the body and 
a silver plate gives name and age. The funeral procession is gaudy with 
paper images, flags and tinseled paper, and is characterized by all the 
execrable din and noise of a Chinese band after which come the coffin, 
food, priests, relatives and hired mourners. At the grave incense and 
paper clothes are burned, and their ashes, rice, food, flowers and lime 
thrown into the hole prepared for the coffin. After prayers and scram¬ 
bling for cash, the grave is closed and with wailing and one loud, final 
lamentation the guests adjourn to the feast which is always the conclu¬ 
sion of a Chinese funeral; though once a year ever thereafter they visit 
the graves of their relatives with offerings of food, incense, gilt paper, 
and paper clothes, and fly kites over their graves. 

The Greeks generally employed cremation but it was not univer¬ 
sal, for one of the laws of Athens was to the effect that the one who dis¬ 
covered a corpse was obliged to see that it was buried, and he who 
refused this was deemed impious—for if the body was left uninterred 
the spirit must wander a full century before it could enter the other 
world. 

The Romans for several centuries buried their dead and to the latest 
days some of the ancient families, as the Cornelian, adhered to this 
practice. Burning became the general custom among the Bomans during 
the republic and was almost universal under the empire until in the 
last two centuries of our era, under the Antonines, interments were again 
definitely substituted for cremation. The Bomans had both private 
tombs and also puteoli, deep excavations, which were kept for public 
burial. Slaves were buried in pits at Borne to save expense. Criminals 
and those killed by lightning were refused burial, and also those dying 
from infanticide. Children were buried by torchlight at night. 

The coffins of the Bomans were frequently made of a peculiar kind 
of stone brought from Assos, which was said to have the power to destroy 
all of the body except the teeth in a few weeks, hence its Creek name— 
sarcophagus or flesh-destroying—a name frequently used for all varieties 
of stone chests designed to contain dead bodies, although coffins in the 
modern sense of the word were known in Greece. They were most fre¬ 
quently made of baked clay like those used at present in Japan. They 
also had coffins of brick covered with tiles and leaden and glass coffins. 

Both inhumation and cremation were Druidical and ancient British 
fashions, and barrows were the oldest tombs. Bough stone coffins or kest- 
vaen were also employed, not unlike those found in the so-called pigmy 
graves of Tennessee, which were once considered the burial places of a 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


27 


diminutive race, but are now known as ossuaries or stone cists for chil¬ 
dren's bones. 

The Romans in England buried their dead beside their military roads 
and many Roman stone coffins have been found there. The earli¬ 
est known instance of a wooden coffin is Arthur’s, though wooden 
boxes hollowed out of the trunk of a tree are found in the English bar- 
rows. To these succeed stone coffins for persons only of the higher 
classes in Saxon times and throughout the middle ages, and these were 
not quite obsolete in the reign of Henry VIII. (1509). Leaden coffins were 
also occasionally used. For a century after the Conquest the usual sub¬ 
stitute for a coffin was to wrap the body in the strongest bull’s hide, 
which in case of the nobility was gilded. In this fashion were buried 
Henry I., the Empress Maude, King John and James III. of Scotland. 
In the time of Edward II. and III. even persons of distinction preferred 
to have their bodies committed to the bare earth, and it was the common 
custom in the time of Queen Elizabeth to bury only in winding sheets. 

The Early Christian’s burial was exceedingly simple and sug¬ 
gestive. No hired mourners or attendants were allowed, their fellow 
Christians attending to all of the wants of the dead without hire. Af¬ 
ter the body was properly washed and arrayed it was laid in some church 
or place of meeting where prayers and psalm-singing were continuously 
held, until the time of the funeral. Burial took place during the day to 
signify that Christian death was a victory, and the funeral a triumphal 
procession with branches not of cypress, but of palm with olive and 
evergreen leaves on the coffin. The corpse was laid in the grave with the 
face upwards and the feet to the east in token of the resurrection, except 
where it was the custom to bury their pastors with their faces to the 
east that they might meet their people on the morning of the resur¬ 
rection, for it was the general expectation that the coming Christ 
would appear in the East. 

The Mahometans bury their dead uncoffined, usually on the day of 
death, in order that they may the sooner reach Paradise. The prophet 
forbade wailing, but the prohibition is usually disregarded, for hired 
mourners are generally employed, sometimes at home, sometimes attend¬ 
ing the body on its way to the grave. Selections from the Koran are 
recited at the house by the proper religious functionary, after which the 
funeral procession is arranged, the male relatives preceding the bier and 
in front of them six or eight blind men chanting a profession of faith, 
accompanied by the same number of school boys reciting religious 
poems descriptive of the last judgment. Behind the bier come the fe¬ 
male relatives and hired mourning women with tambourines, crying, 
weeping, and shrieking forth the praises of the deceased. If the dead 
man was rich, camels follow bearing bread to distribute to the poor at 





28 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


the tomb, together with a buffalo to be slaughtered for the same pur¬ 
pose. When the bier reaches the mosque it is laid in the place of 
prayer with its right side toward Mecca, and the priest standing at the 
other side recites the virtues of the deceased. The body is then laid in 
the tomb, with the face towards Mecca and the services are concluded. 

The North American Indians practiced inhumation as the most fre¬ 
quent method of burial; its simplest mode, according to Dr. Yar¬ 
row, was to make a large round hole in which the body was placed, either 
upright or on its haunches. The Carolina tribes first made a sort of vault 
in which the body was placed in a cane coffin on layers of bark; the Sacs 
and Foxes were also careful to prevent the earth coming in contact with 
the corpse. The Creeks buried in a round hole, about four feet deep, 
directly under the abode of the deceased, while the Comanches wrapped 
the body in a blanket, tied with cords into a round, compact bundle and 
tumbled it into one of the canons with which their country abounds. The 
Puebloes roll the corpse up in a buffalo robe, tie it. tightly with a lasso 
and bury it in a grave seven feet deep. Indian burial grounds are very 
widely distributed over our country, immense mounds being found in 
Ohio, Illinois, Tennessee and Kentucky, and their varied contents care¬ 
fully studied by the archeologists, have told us what little we know 
about the prehistoric Mound Builders. 

At the time of the settlement of America, according to Sir Henry 
Spelnian, uncoffined interments were the rule amongst the humbler 
classes. In England “some decent coverings were deemed necessary but 
this was all,” so that it is more than probable that many of the pilgrim 
fathers were thus interred. 

As early as 1703, however, we find record of coffins provided for 
the poor; and Roger Williams was certainly buried in a coffin as earlv 
as 1683 (Wickes, page 143), so that for the past 200 years inhuma¬ 
tion in coffins may be said to have been the custom of this country. In 
the memory of the writer these coffins were all made by hand by the 
undertaker, who attempted little more than this for the care of the 
dead. The labor-saving machinery of the last quarter of a century has 
transformed the undertaker from a carpenter to a funeral director, for 
his chief duty is no longer to painfully steam long boards into the sides 
of a coffin, but to intelligently and scientifically care for the dead. Bv 
his skill decomposition can now be held in check at will, for with the 
means at present at his command he may choose the antiseptics best 
suited to his particular purpose; for, clearly understanding what putrefac¬ 
tion really is, he has now-a-days learned how to successfully combat it. 
The exigencies of the late war forced him to solve this problem and the 
result to-day is that the American undertaker has become a better than 
the ancient Egyptian embalmer. 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


29 


How this has been accomplished will be described in detail in a sub¬ 
sequent section. This ought, however, to be prefaced by an historical 
account of the growth of embalmment elsewhere. 

[5.] EMBALMING. 

The art of embalming, or the preservation of the dead by means of 
balsams and other antiseptic substances, was first generally adopted by the 
Egyptians. History is silent as to whether it originated among them¬ 
selves, by accident or design, or whether they learned it from other and 
older nations. It certainly was practiced at a very early date, the 
mummy of King Pepi being estimated to have been embalmed 3600 to 
3800 B.C. and that of King Menkara in the British Museum is approxi¬ 
mately assigned to 4000 B.C. 

Embalming among the Egyptians was not a matter of choice. By 
their religious law it was compulsory, being performed not only for every 
native Egyptian, but also for all strangers dying in the land, as was done 
for Jacob and Joseph (Gen., L. 2) as well as for slaves, captives and 
criminals, lepers and certain of the lower animals. Various writers have 
given to us what seemed to them to be its most probable origin. Thus 
Cassius affirms that the method was invented on account of the inability 
of the Egyptians to bury their dead during the period of inundation. 
Volney and Pariset believe the custom was due to the frequency of the 
plague. Herodotus avers that it was performed for the purpose of pre¬ 
serving bodies from the ravages of wild beasts. Other writers have also 
given us various reasons why the Egyptians embalmed their dead, but 
the most plausible reason and the one which is now generally believed to 
be the true one, is that it arose from the religious belief of the Egyptians 
that after two thousand years the soul would return to seek the body 
again which it would reoccupy in its original form, if it could find it 
preserved incorrupt, hence to refuse embalmment in Egypt was as grievous 
a lack of piety as to leave a body unburied among the Romans. The 
number of mummies still remaining in Egypt is almost incredible. 
According to Belzoni there are eight to ten millions of mummied bodies 
in Thebes alone. The whole mountain side on the west bank of the 
river is one vast necropolis. The open doors of tombs are seen in long 
ranges and at different elevations, and on the plain pits have been opened 
in which have been found a thousand mummies at a time. It has been 
estimated that 400,000,000 human mummies were made in Egypt from 
the beginning of the art of embalming until its discontinuance in the 
sixth century. Doubtless the warm, dry atmosphere of the country has 
had as much to do witli the preservation of these bodies as the art of 
their embalmers, for an Egyptian mummy brought to a changeable 
climate like our own begins to disintegrate as surely as Cleopatra’s Pillar 


30 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


in New York Central Park. So evident is this that many assert 
all mummies may have been formed by natural causes only, e. g. Pen- 
ieher, Clauderus, De Maillett, Rouelle and Gannal cite examples of this 
nature: “ A whole caravan, or some travelers, disappear under a mass of 
sand; years, centuries pass by, then a new revolution in the disposition 
of these masses restores to the light of day these bodies which a previous 
revolution had engulfed, blackened, dried, and lightened by the loss of 
all their fluids and converted into mummies.” 

Humboldt met with true mummies in Mexico, where he saw with 
astonishment that the old battle fields of the time of the conquest 
by the Spaniards were covered with the dead bodies of both Span¬ 
iards and Peruvians dried and preserved to that time. And today 
persons dying while crossing the Arabian desert, when for the lack of 
time and other causes their bodies are permitted to remain exposed to 
the elements, are afterward found in a perfect state of preservation, 
simply mummified as was, according to Herodotus, the army of Cam- 
byses after his disastrous expedition to Egypt. 

NATURAL MUMMIES 

are formed by the general qualities of the air and earth; others by 
purely local influences. In the first series we include the mummy of 
the sand and those of avalanches; in the second, those discovered here 
and there in certain sepulchres, as in the Convent of the Capuchins, near 
Palermo, and at Rome, in the caves of St. Michael at Bordeaux, in the 
cemetery of the Church of Saint Nicholas, the cloister of the Carmens, 
the caves of the Jacobins and the Cordeliers at Toulouse, at Strasbure 1 
etc. The famous mummy of St. Carlo Boromeo, in the vault of the 
splendid Cathedral at Milan, is another remarkable instance. The body 
is as black and solid as an Egyptian mummy. It was removed from a 
cemetery in the vicinity after having remained there many years. No 
artificial means had been resorted to for its preservation. In the Church 
of St. Thomas, at Strasburg, are the mummified bodies of the Count of 
Nassau and his daughter. These relics, six hundred years old, are hab¬ 
ited in the costume of that epoch. The coat, small clothes, etc., of the 
father have been replaced by exact imitations, but the garments of the 
daughter are actually those in which she was buried, consisting of a blue 
silk gown, richly ornamented with lace, with diamond rings on her 
fingers, and jewels on her breast. The body is well preserved, with the 
exception of the face. Bunches of silvered flowers still adorn the top of 
the head, arms and shoulders. The features of the Count are almost 
perfect. Similar bodies may be found in the vault of the Kreuzberg 
church, located near Bonn on the Rhine. Here may be found some two 
dozen of mummified monks, some of them centuries old. They were all 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


31 


habited in the costume of the period, and appear to have died at an 
advanced age. These are natural mummies, or the result of simple 
dessication, the skin resembling leather. It is probable that we may 
refer to similar causes, those interesting subjects discovered some years 
ago in the caves of St. Michael at Bordeaux, upon which Dr. Boucherie, 
fifty years ago, made an elaborate report, from which we quote : 

“ The bodies exposed to view at Bordeaux, in the cavern situated 
beneath the tower at St. Michael, were deposited there in 1793, nearly in 
the same state in which they appear at present. They came from the 
sepulchres of the church and the adjoining cemetery. A great number 
of bones, and the wreck of soft parts, dried and preserved like the whole 
bodies, form a layer of seventeen or eighteen feet, upon which are sup- 
ported the inferior extremities of seventy objects arranged in a circle 
around the wall and retained in a vertical position by the cords which 
bind them. Some of these, they say, had remained in the earth many 
centuries, others from sixty to eighty years or more. * * * 

“The skin of all these mummies, of a more or less gray color, dried 
and rather soft to the touch, gives the sensation of parchment slightly 
stretched upon the organs, dried, and of the consistence of amadou, or 
spunk. The articulations are stiff and inflexible. The chest, the 
abdomen and the cranium, examined carefully, did not show any incision 
or any regular opening indicative of any trace of embalming, even the 
most imperfect. The different features of the face, still distinct among 
some of them, displayed a variety of physiognomy. Two or three of 
them displayed the hair of the beard very well preserved. The teeth 
were healthy and covered with brilliant enamel. The upper and lower 
extremities are entirely dried and whole in many of the subjects, and 
are provided with the phalanges; the last, however, divested of its 
nail. * * * The skin raised and viewed on its interior surface is 

tanned like the exterior. All traces of cellular tissue has disappeared. 
The muscles, separated from the skin, have the color and consistence 
and almost the internal structure of dried pith. On introducing the 
hand into the chest, some rudiment of lung was found, a net-work very 
similar to that of leaves deprived of their fleshy part. They might be 
taken for a mass of leaves dissected by the caterpillars, and rendered 
adherent by the threads and viscous fluid that these insects deposit. The 
intestines, also dried, are nearly in the same state. ” 

The same phenomena still occur in different parts of the world, under 
a moderate temperature: thus, about 1660 M. de La Yisee and his 
domestic, having been assassinated at Paris and interred on the place 
where the crime was committed, their bodies were discovered after the 
lapse of a year, whole and readily recognizable; a cloak, even, lined 
with plush, had not suffered the least alteration. 


32 


MODES OF BURIAL. 

The mummy of the avalanches, and all those, the preservation of 
which is due to a constant low temperature, retains the freshness and 
plumpness of the tissues for years and for centuries, if the conditions of 
the medium remain the same; but, under these circumstances the action 
of cold exerts no other influence than the suspension of decomposition, 
for the moment it ceases the tissues are rapidly exposed to the laws of 
inorganic chemistry. 

In those cases, moreover, where the bodies exposed to cold are sub¬ 
jected to a dry and lively wind, a real mummification may occur, as 
takes place upon the Great St. Bernard: 

“ There is upon the summit of the Great St. Bernard a sort of 
morgue (dead house) in which have been deposited, from time imme¬ 
morial, the bodies of those unfortunate persons who have perished upon 
this mountain. The hospice is the most elevated habitation in Europe, 
being 7,200 feet above the level of the sea. The temperature is always 
very Ioav, rarely above zero, even during summer. This extensive estab¬ 
lishment is built upon the borders of a little lake, at the bottom of a 
gorge; the principal mass of the building represents a long parallelogram 
placed in the direction of the gorge, so that its two principal faces, 
pierced with numerous windows, are sheltered from the wind by the 
rocks, whilst the two extremeties, on the contrary, are exposed to all the 
violence of those which blow from one side of the gorge to the other. 
About fifty feet beyond this principal building, and a little out of a right 
line with it, is situated the morgue , a sort of square chamber, the Avails 
of which, three or four feet thick, are constructed of good stone, and the 
arched roof of which is very solid. Tavo windoAvs of about four feet 
square are pierced in the direction of the breadth of the valley, directly 
facing each other, so that a perpetual current of cool air traverses the 
interior of the chamber. There is, further, but a single table in this 
morgue, upon which they place the bodies Avhen first introduced; after 
awhile they are arranged around the AA r alls in an upright attitude. 
There were several of these mummified bodies along the Avails of the 
chamber, but a greater number Avere entirely divested of flesh, and lie 
scattered about the earthy floor of the room. They informed me that 
decomposition only took place Avhen the bodies fell by accident to the 
ground, which Avas owing to the humidity occasioned by the siioav Avhich 
occasionally entered Avith the currents of air through the windows of the 
morgue.”— Dr. Lenoir. 

EMBALMING AMONG THE GUANCHES. 

The aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands, like the ancient 
Peruvians, adopted an analogous method of dessication, although Avith 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


33 


them warm air instead of cold was the preservative agent utilized. 
Gannal says of them 

“ The Guanches and the Egyptians are the only nations among whom 
embalming has become a national custom, and there exists in the process 
and mode of preservation of both such striking analogy that the study 
of the Guanch mummies is, probably, the surest means of arriving at 
some proper notions of their origin and relationship. To make our¬ 
selves understood in the subject which now occupies us, we ought to re¬ 
mark, that the details known of the mode of embalming among the 
Guanches will enlighten and complete the descriptions that ancient 
authors have transmitted to us of the Egyptian processes; it is thus that 
it appears to us without a doubt, that their silence on dessication as a 
part of the act of mummification, is a simple omission on their part; 
that this desiccation was continued during the seventy days of prepara¬ 
tion; that it constituted the principal part of the processes adopted, and 
that, because among the Guanches desiccation was placed in the first 
rank.” 

“The Guanches preserved the remains of their relations in a scrupu¬ 
lous manner, and spared no pains to guarantee them from corruption. 
As a moral duty, each individual prepared for himself the skins of goats 
in which his remains could be enveloped, and which might serve him 
for sepulchre. These skins were often divested of their hair, at other 
times they permitted it to remain, when they placed indifferently the 
hairy side within or without. The processes to which they resorted to 
make perfect mummies, which they named Xaxos, are nearly lost. Some 
writers have, nevertheless, left details on this subject, but perhaps they 
are not more exact than those which Herodotus has transmitted to us 
upon the embalming of the Egyptians. 

With the Guanches, the embalmers were abject beings; ilien and 
women filled this employment respectively for their sexes. They were 
well paid, but their touch was considered contamination; and all who 
were occupied in preparing the xaxos lived retired, solitary and out of 
sight. There were several kinds of embalming, and several employ¬ 
ments for those who had charge of it. When they had need of the ser¬ 
vices of the embalmers they carried the body to them to be preserved and 
immediately retired. If the body belonged to persons capable of bear¬ 
ing the expense, it was extended at first on a stone table; an operator 
then made an opening in the lower part of the belly with a sharpened 
flint, wrought into the form of a knife and called tabona ; the intestines 
were withdrawn, which other operatives aftewards washed and cleaned; 
they also washed the rest of the body, and particularly the delicate 
parts, as the eyes, interior of the mouth, the ears and the nails, with 
fresh water saturated with salt. They filled the large cavities with 


34 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


aromatic plants; they then exposed the body to the hottest sun, or placed 
it in stoves, if the sun was not hot enough. During the exposition the 
body was frequently imbued with an ointment composed of goats’grease, 
powder of odoriferous plants, pine bark, resin, tar, ponce stone, and 
other absorbing materials. Feuille thinks that these unctions were also 
made with a composition of butter, and desiccative and balsamic sub¬ 
stances, among which are mentioned the resin of larch, and the leaves 
of pomegranate, which never possessed the property of preserving bodies. 

On the fifteenth day the process should be completely terminated; 
the mummy should be dry and light; the relatives send for it and estab¬ 
lish the most magnificent obsequies in their power. They sew up the 
body in several folds of the skin, which they had prepared when living, 
and they bind it with straps retained by running knots. The kings and 
the grandees were besides, placed in a case or coffin of a single piece, and 
hollowed out of the trunk of a juniper trqe, the wood of which was held 
as incorruptible. They then, finally, carried the xaxos, thus sown and 
encased, to inaccessible grottoes consecrated to this purpose. 

Another less expensive mode of preserving the dead, consisted in 
drying them in the sun, after having introduced into the belly a corro¬ 
sive liquor; this liquor eats into the interior parts, where the sun does 
not act sufficiently to prevent their corruption. Like the other xaxos, 
the relatives sowed them in skins and carried them to the grottoes. 

These mummies, such as they are found at the present day, are dry 
and light; many have perfectly preserved their hair and beard, the nails 
are often wanting; the features of the face are distinct, but shrunken; 
the abdomen is contracted. In some, there exists no mark of incision, 
in others are observed the trace of a rather large opening on the flank. 
The xaxos are of a tanned color with generally an agreeable odour; ex¬ 
posed to the air, out of the sacks of goat skin, which are admirably pre¬ 
served, they fall by degrees into dust; they are punctured in many places; 
surrounded by the chrysalides of flies, proceeding probably from maggots, 
deposited upon the body during its preparation; these larvse and 
chrysalides, which could not be reproduced, are preserved whole and 
healthy like the mummies.” (M. Bory de St. Vincent on the Fortunate 
Islands.) 

The Chevalier Scory says, that these mummies are two thousand 
years old, and in appearance are almost precisely like the mummies still 
found among the Peruvians, who like the Mexicans embalmed their 
incas or kings. The Ethiopians (Macrovians) according to Herodotus, 
embalmed and dried their dead, and then, after having rubbed them with 
gypsum and painted them to resemble life—incased them in a block of 
some transparent substance (glass?) To the same author we are also 
mainly indebted for our present knowledge of the process employed by 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


35 


the ancient Egyptians in their various methods of embalming. Its cost 
depended upon the method adopted, the cheapest costing but little; 
while the most perfect process required an outlay of about $1200. This 
last was a tedious process, consuming in all over two months and was 
carried on in the following manner:—The brains as far as possible were 
removed through the nostrils by an iron wire introduced, thence through 
the ethmoid bone into the cavity of the skull, which was then fully 
cleaned with antiseptic injections. The intestines were also removed bv 
an incision made in the left side and this was considered so detestable mi 
office that the one who was appointed to it was pursued by stones and 
curses by the bystanders when he had completed his work. The intestines 
were removed through this opening and were commonly preserved in a 
mixture of sand and asphalt and buried in vases placed near the mum¬ 
my, the abdomen being filled with chips and sawdust of cedar and a 
small quantity of natron, the native carbonate of soda, found at the 
natron lakes in the Libyan desert. The cavity of the abdomen was then 
cleaned with palm wine and filled with myrrh and cassia and after a 
prayer by the priest that all sins of eating and drinking might be for¬ 
given, the incision was sewed up. After this the body was placed in a 
bath of native carbonate of soda where it was left for seventy days. Occa¬ 
sionally the viscera were, after antiseptic treatment, either in part or 
entirely replaced in the body together with amulets. The body was 
then washed and handed over to an inferior order of priests, whose duty 
was to envelop it in multitudinous bandages, sometimes as many as 700 
—1,200 yards of 3£ inch bandages having been unrolled from a single 
mummy. Each finger, toe, and limb was separately swathed and then 
the whole body was enveloped, being padded as necessary to preserve its 
shape, the linen bandages for this purpose often being gathered for an 
entire lifetime. The under bandages were undoubtedly laid on wet, 
probably being first dipped in spirits, or palm wine. The outer band¬ 
ages were of gummed cloth and the body was then ready for the coffin, 
or sarcophagus. These were often gaudily painted and ornamented 
with hieroglyphics indicating the previous rank and occupation of the 
deceased, and to still further identify the mummy its bandages were 
marked with indelible ink. 

There were other and less expensive modes of embalming, especially 
of the lower animals, in use among the Egyptians, and one of these was 
by means of injecting the abdomen with cedria, a distillate from the 
pitch pine, and a subsequent natron bath ; while the bodies of the poorest 
were preserved by immersion for seventy days in this alone, after a pre¬ 
vious rinsing of the emptied abdomen with Syrian turpentine. Others 
were embalmed by plunging the body into molten bitumen, as was gen¬ 
erally the case with the very poorest. Occasionally tanning was resorted 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


to, but these cheaper methods produced very inferior results, as may be 
seen in the mummies of the poor which are black, heavy, brittle, and so 
saturated with bitumen that it is claimed they are now used for fuel on 
some of the modern Egyptian railroads. Curiously but few mummies of 
children have been found, although it was the Egyptian practice to 
embalm even those dying at birth. 

In the light of recent discoveries the Egyptian method is seen to have 
been thoroughly scientific, although probably unwittingly so. Little as 
they knew of the modern theories of putrefaction they chose substances 
now known to possess antiseptic properties. In fact their preparation of a 
body was thoroughly antiseptic and Listerian, so carefully was the mummy 
enveloped in numerous layers of byssus the intermediate spaces filled 
with gauze impregnated with essential oils and substances containing 
(carbolic) acid, resins and balsams, and the whole covered with layers of 
asphalt, or with mackintosh, exactly like a modern Lister dressing. 

Under the Greeks and Romans the art of embalming declined, 
although it was occasionally practiced as late as the sixth century ; since 
which time, until quite recently, it cannot be said to have been in use, 
not however because it is a lost art, as is sometimes said, for there are 
still extant more elaborate rituals and hand-books for the preparation of 
the dead according to the Egyptian fashion than are known in any other 
language. Four varieties of these are known, the first is devoted to a 
description of the surgery necessary to properly remove the viscera; the 
second contains a list of the gums, resins, spices and forms of bandages 
used ; and the third and fourth are rituals proper, or litanies and prayers 
to be recited over the dead. As late as the time of St. Augustine, 
according to Gabriel Clauderus, the bodies of Alexander and Ptolemy were 
still preserved. This he claimed was not in the first case due alone to 
the honey in which the body was preserved, but to fabulous balsamic 
properties inherent in Alexander's body, which, according to Quintus 
Curtius, was “of a composition so rare and wonderful, that his skin, 
mouth, and all his person, rendered a very agreeable odor, and perfumed 
his clothes. It is said that his corpse, by the negligence of bis friends 
and of his captain, remained several days without being embalmed, and 
that, nevertheless, when they went to visit it, it was found sound, with¬ 
out blemish, having even the complexion as fresh and florid as if he had 
been living, although he died of a continued fever ; his appearance was 
so natural that the Egyptians and Chaldeans, who were charged to em¬ 
balm him after their own manner, were at first afraid to approach him, 
thinking he might not be dead." 

EMBALMING IN EUROPE. 

The art of embalming was never entirely lost in Europe, for DeBills, 
Clauderus, Ruysch and Schwammerdam boast of great success, and De- 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


O fV 


'> 4 


Bills was wonderfully successful, probably the most so of any of the 
embalmers of his day. His method died with him, except that Clauderus 
discovered that some saline was undoubtedly the efficient agent in his 
work, although he tried carefully to conceal the fact by the free use of 
aromatics. 

Clauderus’ salt was the next popular preparation and was thus pre¬ 
pared : 

“Dissolve one pound of common salt with a pound of oil of vitriol 
in a crucible, apply a cover closely luted, and distill it gradually in a 
sand bath: you may pour off a spirit very excellent for a lotion; in the 
bottom of the crucible will remain a caput mortuum, which should be 
dissolved according to art, and after evaporation, you will have the salt 
so much esteemed by the author.” The caput mortuum , or residue thus 
prepared and left behind in the crucible was nothing more or less than 
sodium sulphate, (which see) with no more remarkable properties then 
than now. DeRusych’s famous preservative was only dilute alcohol, if 
he told the truth, for when this eminent Dutch anatomist sold his cab¬ 
inet to Peter the I., he gave a manuscript in which he made known the 
composition of his preservative fluid in which he expressly stated that 
this liquor was nothing more than the spirit of malt to which was added 
during distillation a handful of white pepper. Ruysch either did not 
give the true composition, or exaggerated its virtues, for it is far from 
possessing the effects which have been attributed to it ; although it has 
the value of any strong alcoholic fluid, containing also possibly a small 
proportion of fousel oil (which see) Schwammerdanrs and DeMaetz's 
methods were essentially alike and relied upon maceration in turpen¬ 
tine; the latter’s directions being as follows : “ After the corpse has 
been emptied and cleaned of its excretions, it is placed in a leaden coffin, 
and there macerated in a sufficient quantity of pure oil of turpentine, 
and after some days of maceration, wash it with spirits of wine to 
remove the odor, then sprinkle it with a strong tincture of myrrh and 
aloes, which they call balsamum mortuorum, and that it be finally dried 
in the sun,” and Schwammerdanrs directions are these: 

“It is necessary, then, to obtain a pewter vessel of sufficient size to 
contain the body to be embalmed; place at a distance of about two fin¬ 
gers depth of the bottom, a hurdle of wood, pierced with many holes; 
place the body on this hurdle, and pour on oil of turpentine to the 
height of three fingers, keep the vessel quiet, tightly, and less and less 
hermetically covered during a certain space of time; in this manner the 
oil, of a penetrating nature, will filtrate by degrees into the body on 
which it is poured, and will expel the aqueous portions, the principal 
cause of the fermentation which tends to corruption.” 

This method is as old as the Egyptians, but the odor of the turpen- 


t 


38 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


tine and its solvent properties upon certain of the tissues have rendered 
it obsolete in these latter days and the same is now true of the once famous 

penicher’s balm, 

which at one time enjoyed as high a reputation as some of our modern pre¬ 
servative fluids, but as may be seen by its annexed formula, its composi¬ 
tion was as comprehensive as the claims made by himself for its powers. 
We give his own words: It is compounded by the roots of Angelica, Impe- 
ratoria, Galanga, Acorus, Carolina, Caryophillata, Gentian, Enula Cam- 
pana, Valerian, Florentine Iris, Flambe, Calamus Aromatus, Ginger, Py- 
retlirum, Cyperus, Dictamus, Rosewood, Sassafras, Guiacum, Juniper, Box 
Wood, Citron Bark, Oranges, Canella, Cassia Lignea, Tan, Nutmegs, Mace, 
Cloves, Cubebs.Spicknard, Colocynth, Bay Berries, Juniper Berries, and 
Myrtle Berries, Gall Nuts, Cypress, Anise Seed, Cumin Seed, Fennel Seed, 
Coriander Seed, Cardamom Seed, long, white and black pepper, Rue 
Leaves, Thyme, Absynth, Savin, Horehound, Mugwort, Laurel, Mint, 
Myrtle, Calomint, Balmgentle, Majorum, Rosemary, Sage, Summer Sa¬ 
vory, Wild Thyme, Pennyroyal, Mountain Mint, Hyssop, Nepeta, Basilic, 
Scordium, Flowers of Saffron, Roses, pale and red, Staechas, Centaury, 
Melilot, Chamomile, Germander Chamsepitys, Hyspericum, Caraway 
Seed, Dill Seed, Lavender * * * and is calculated either by the aro¬ 
matic virtues of sulphur and volatile salts, medicaments which enter 
into its composition, or by a strong bitter principle which consists in a 
very penetrating particle, the property of which is to consume and atten¬ 
uate the crude matters, which disposes and hastens the body to corrup¬ 
tion; or by remedies inheriting a quantity of particles which dissipate 
and absorb all putrescent moisture, or by their viscosity agglutinating the 
parts which ferment and rarefy too readily ; or, finally, by their astrin- 
gency, which, fixing the same parts, prevents the resolution of all.” 

The late Stephen Pearl Andrews could hardly have written a more 
unintelligible panegyric, or one that could have given us less informa¬ 
tion as to the action of this polypharmacy, whose value, if any, depended 
on the essential oils and tannin contained in its multitudinous constitu¬ 
ents. Penicher s method, however, received royal favor and he gives in 
detail the process he employed for the preservation of princes: “ First 
make a long incision from the superior part of the sternum, to facilitate 
the examination of the contents of the chest, and to investigate the 
cause of disease and death, in order that a faithful written report may be 
made in concert with the physicians and surgeons of the king. All the 
parts contained in this cavity must be removed; he will afterward 
descend to the lower belly and examine all their contents, which he will 
remove for that purpose, taking away everything disposed to corruption. 

“ The surgeon, having emptied these cavities, ought to work at the 


MODES OE BURIAL 


3‘J 


head, of which he will saw the cranium in the same manner as for ana¬ 
tomical demonstrations; and after he shall have examined and taken out 
the brains, the apothecary must carefully wash the cavity with aromatic 
wine and alcohol, and then fill it with the powdered balm he will have 
prepared, and with cotton and tow soaked in some fluid balsam, in such 
a manner that there will be several layers of these stoupes and powder 
applied one above the other; after which replace the bones of the cranium 
and sew up the skin. He will then rub the head all over with the 
liquid balm, and bathe the face frequently with the same; envelop the 
head in a deep cap, which must be waxed; and after having insinuated 
into the nose, the mouth, the orbits of the eyes and into the ears, cot¬ 
ton, soaked in liquid balm, the oil of nutmeg and cloves, he will labor at 
the abdomen which must be washed in the same aromatic wine and alco¬ 
hol, and rubbed with some of the aforesaid balms, and, finally, stuffed 
abundantly with powder and tow, until all these matters, distributed one 
above the other, will form the natural size and appearance of the abdo¬ 
men, which must be sewn up. The surgeon will take care that sections 
be made in the veins and arteries, in order to divest them of blood and 
humidity, which will be observed regarding the arms, thighs, legs, heels, 
and other parts, as the back, shoulders, and buttocks, turning the 
corpse for this purpose, face towards the table; in these thick and fleshy 
places, the incisions must be long, deep, and numerous, penetrating 
even to the bone; and when the large vessels have been opened and 
purged of their blood, the pharmacien will fill all these spaces with the 
powder, and then sew them up with a needle and thread, after having 
spiinkled and bathed them, in aromatic wine and alcohol; for it is neces¬ 
sary to take care and foment incessantly these parts; absorb from them, 
if possible, all humidity, and dry them with a sponge, previous to rub¬ 
bing them with liquid balm, or one of the liniments, and fill them with 
the stoupes and said powders. Finally the whole must be sewed up very 
neatly, so that the body may not be disfigured; for the same reason the 
face ought not to be incised, and we ought to endeavor so to preserve the 
features that they may be easily recognized, as 1 have recently witnessed 
on the opening of a coffin of a bishop, who was embalmed more than 
fifty years ago and whose countenance was not in the least disfigured. 
For this reason the artist will make use of fine powders, of aloes, myrrh, 
and others; as regards the body, he will rub and anoint it with the lini¬ 
ment which he will have prepared, adding thereto the powder which he 
will make into a paste. And it is necessary to remark that in propor¬ 
tion as he finishes the embalming of each part, the surgeon ought to ban¬ 
dage, it with bandages of linen soaked in the liniment, so that they will 
resemble a species of corset, and in form of a letter X; let them make 
several convolutions one upon the other, to keep the parts of the 


40 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


body compact, and prevent the aromatics escaping from the cavities filled 
with them; these bandages should commence with the neck and finish 
with the feet and hands; they must be long and broad for the body, 
thighs, legs, and arms, bnt narrow and short for the fingers. This done, 
put on the chemise; ornament the subject with the exterior marks of 
dignity which were possessed during life time, and wrap it in a linen 
cloth soaked in liniment, which will serve as an adhesive plaster; which 
must be tied by the two extremities with a riband; above which, envelop 
it with the cere-cloth, which should be very closely bound with a cord. 
Finally, deposit the body in a coffin, the intervals of which must be filled 
with what remains of the powder, if there be any, or with parcels with 
dried aromatic herbs; close it and solder it with the utmost exactitude. 
Place on the outside a plate of copper, or some other durable metal, 
upon which has been engraved some appropriate inscription, to serve as a 
memento to posterity. The coffin must be placed in another of wood, 
which may be covered, if desirable, with a mortuary cloth.” 

“ This work being accomplished, we next come to the heart, which, as 
I have already stated, is separately embalmed. Supposing, then, it has 
been removed from its place, divested of its pericardium, and both its 
ventricles, opened, frequently washed with spirits of wine, and well 
cleaned of clotted blood, and of all other impurities that may be attached 
to it, and having allowed it to soak during the preceding operations in 
spirits of wine, or in distilled oil of turpentine, the apothecary now takes 
this viscera thus prepared ; he fills the ventricles with powdered aloes, 
myrrh, benzoin and styrax; he may even rub it with oil, or essence of 
nutmeg, cloves and canella, as also with the tinctures of ambergris, 
musk and civet; he will then arrange it in perfumed cotton, so as to 
make it contain the powders, which, with the oils, will form a paste, and 
he will place it in a little sack of cere-cloth, perfumed with some of the 
above named essences, with which also he will rub the box in which it is 
to be inclosed, both internally and externally, solder it carefully, and 
envelop it in taffeta of a certain color, which must be equally soaked and 
rubbed with essences or tinctures, and tied with ribands of the same 
color. 

“ The body and heart being thus embalmed, it only remains to speak 
of the viscera, the lungs and the brain. 

“ In order more easily to clean the viscera, they must be opened length¬ 
wise, incisions must be made in the lungs, the spleen, the uterus, and 
the other contents of the cavities; cleaned of blood, serosity, and other 
foreign matter, which would cause them to putrefy in a little time ; then 
washed with strong spirits of wine, having been previously washed in 
other liquors, and then arranged in a barrel, so that the powder first 
covers the bottom, placing a portion of the viscera on this first layer, and 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


41 


afterwards a second bed of powder; and continue thus to place the 
viscera and the powders alternately, and by layers, until the barrel be 
nearly full, taking care that the last layer consists of this prepared 
powder, which must not be sjDared on this occasion. This barrel, which 
ought to be made of lead, should be placed in a second of wood, which 
must be accurately headed and pitched. 

“ Finally, when the body is to be publicly exposed on the bed where it 
died, the face should be washed with spirits of wine, and with true balm, 
refreshing it frequently, and when it is necessary to expose it on a bed of 
parade to remain several days, it is commonly sufficient to mould it in 
wax, and to show only its external figure, during the time that the body 
is upon the bed embalmed in a coffin. But, when the body itself of the 
deceased is exposed, it is necessary, in the first place, to paint and 
powder the hair or wig with a fine powder of pleasant odour; shave the 
beard, if there be any, fill the mouth with powder and cotton, to elevate 
and protrude the cheeks, to which may be applied a little rouge, as well 
as to the lips ; if the natural eyes ha/e been removed, replace them with 
artificial eyes, force perfumed cotton up the nostrils; the nose maybe 
refreshed with a linen cloth liberally endued with true balm, during the 
time that the subject is withdrawn from public view; thus, the mouth, 
and generally all the parts that ought to be seen, will be in their natural 
state, to the end that it may be the more readily recognized.” 

We have given PenicheFs method in full as a description of the best 
known up to the time of ChaussieFs discovery of the preservative proper¬ 
ties of corrosive sublimate. Before that all preservation by balms and 
stoupes was due to the ability of their tannin to harden the skin and of 
their aromatics make the products of putrefaction less disagreeable. 

In 1834 Chassier injected the arterial system with an alcoholic solu¬ 
tion of corrosive sublimate for the preservation of the dead. The process 
of Chaussier was still a long way removed from modern embalming, 
but it was an imiirovement over all others which preceded it in that 
it substituted an efficient agent for those uncertain in their operation. 
This process of Chaussier, as modified by Boudet, was as follows : 

The viscera of the body and the brain were removed and preserved 
separately. The cavities left by the removal of these organs was filled 
with tow or cotton, so compressed as to prevent the sinking of those 
parts of the body. 

While these operations were being performed, the body was plunged 
several times alternately in a bath of pure alcohol, and in one of alcohol 
saturated with corrosive sublimate after incisions inherent to the opera¬ 
tion had been closed by proper sutures. The body was laid in a wooden 
trough and completely immersed in a watery solution of corrosive subli¬ 
mate. After three months of maceration the body was taken out, sus- 


42 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


pended horizontally on a network of strong linen bandages in a well- 
ventilated place, and left to dry until completely desiccated. If neces¬ 
sary, the sides of the body were padded by some new addition of tow in 
the interior, to avoid any deformation. This process has, among other 
advantages over the older ones, that of keeping the body free from all 
external envelopes which might hide it from sight. 

But this method is not free from many objectionable points. In the 
first place it requires a large quantity of a substance high in price, and 
of rather dangerous manipulation; secondly, the operation is long, 
tedious, requiring three months for its proper performance, and lastly, 
the mutilation of the body strikes the relatives and friends with an uncon¬ 
querable feeling of disgust and repugnance. 

The year following, Grey in England and Gannal in France embalmed 
the dead by injecting the arteries with solutions of arsenic and alumina 
salts respectively. With Gannal (1835) modern embalming may be said 
to begin; for, although Chaussier’s discovery and Beclad’s, Larrey's and 
Boudet's practical application in baths and stoupes prepared the way,- 
J. N. Gannal was the first to scientifically employ the modern methods 
of arterial injection. 

Furthermore the time required for his operation was of comparatively 
brief duration, as a simple injection of the arterial system and a short 
maceration are substituted for the removal of the viscera and the numerous 
incisions of all the preceding modes of preservation. Moreover, the 
tissues by his process preserve their specific color and elasticity, for they 
suffer no mutilation, but are preserved entire by injecting through one 
of the carotid arteries a certain amount of aqueous solution of acetate 
of alumina. The injection is followed for two or three days by a macer¬ 
ation of the whole body in the same liquid. 

GannaBs process, somewhat modified, is still employed in France and 
Italy, after the following manner: The body is first thoroughly cleansed 
with soap and water and then well saturated with a concentrated solution 
of alumina salts, the same solution being used to inject the intestines 
and the circulatory system through the axillary artery, about two gallons 
being employed for this purpose and in addition tannic acid is freely 
used in the abdominal cavity. 

The agent Gannal used most successfully was the acetate of alumina 
(which see), and which, curiously enough, after the lapse of fifty years, 
has been recently proven both a reliable disinfectant and antiseptic. 

During the past fifty years so large a number of substances have been 
suggested and employed that it would hardly be profitable to attempt a 
chronological enumeration of them here, but we shall endeavor by the 
assistance of Dr. D. S. Lamb of the U. S. Naval Museum to give a suc¬ 
cinct grouping of the more important of these agents, reserving a detailed 


MODES OF BURIAL. 


V 


43 


''description of their properties, advantages, and disadvantages until a 
later section. 

For convenience we adopt the following division, viz: 

1. Gaseous. 

2. Inorganic Solutions. 

3. Organic. 

And as nearly as possible we shall follow the order of the MSS. very 
kindly furnished by Dr. Lamb for the preparation of this part of the 
work. 

1. GASEOUS COMPOUNDS. 

Too little attention has been paid heretofore to the antiseptic powers 
of certain gases. It is a well known fact that some of the gases which 
are the result of animal and vegetable decomposition are, to a certain 
extent, the means of their own disinfection, hence, some of these are 
endowed with deodorizing as well as antiseptic properties. Besides, there 
are other valuable gaseous antiseptics whose use would be much larger 
than at preseht were it possible to handle them more conveniently. 
Chief among these is 

Chlorine, or oxygenated muriatic acid, as it was originally called, 
was first proposed as a disinfecting agent by Pomeroy in 1871, and later 
strongly advocated by Cruickshank. Faraday, to disinfect Millbank 
Penitentiary, prepared it in the following proportions, viz.: 700 lbs. of 
common salt, 700 lbs. of black oxide of manganese, and 1400 lbs. sul- 
phu ric acid. The salts were pounded together with a wooden mallet and 
placed on common earthen pans, before moistening with the acid, and the 
evolution of the gas continued for four days. For the effecient disinfec¬ 
tion of large buildings, no agent has yet been found that is more reliable 
than chlorine, which acts as an antiseptic, by combining with the hydro¬ 
gen of organic compounds, which it abstracts from and thus destroys 
them. Its disinfecting properties are largely due to its power of decom¬ 
posing ammoniacal compounds. For its objections and relative effeciency 
see chlorine.—Also U. S. Patent 171. 332. 

Gaseous Muriatic Acid was still earlier employed, for we find an 
account of its use by Guyton de Morveau in 1773 to disinfect a church 
in Dijon, which had become so contaminated by emanations from its 
vaults that it was unfit for service. Vinegar, aromatics, and the defla¬ 
grations of nitre had been tried, but without effect; but the vapor arising 
from the decomposition of six pounds of common salt by two of sulphuric 
acid deprived the air in one day of all unpleasant odors, and in four 
days afterward worship was performed. This distinguished philosopher 
towards the close of the same year, used fumigations of muriatic acid 
with complete success in disinfecting the prison of that city also, 
whither fever had been imported from other cities. The proportions 


44 


MODES OF BUEIAL. 


recommended are 12 parts of sulphuric acid to 15 parts of nitrate of soda, 
which should be slightly moistened before the acid is poured upon it. 

Carbonic Acid Gas exists in the atmosphere as a product of combus¬ 
tion, and of the respiration of animals; it is a result, also, of the slow 
decomposition of most vegetable substances, and is evolved in great quan¬ 
tities from the ground in volcanic countries. In the fermentation of 
sugar it is produced in abundance, along with alcohol. 

For the purpose of the chemist, it is generally prepared by decom¬ 
posing marble by means of some stronger acid. From its cheapness and 
solubility of the residual salts, muriatic acid is generally employed. 

The properties of carbonic acid are very remarkable; it is perfectly 
colorless and invisible; it is irrespirable, producing, when an attempt is 
made to breathe it, violent spasms of the glottis. If it be respired mixed 
with air, even in the proportion of one to ten, it gradually produces 
stupor and death, acting as a narcotic poison. Hence, when disengaged 
in large quantities, whether by natural operations or in process of manu¬ 
facture, it accumulates in all cavities within its reach; and may cause 
fatal accidents to those who enter unadvisedly. 

Carbonic acid does not support combustion; a taper plunged into a 
jar full of the gas is instantly extinguished. Carbonic acid is* also a 
check on putrefaction, and arrests decay, for oxidation cannot take place 
in it. Hence it frequently has been proposed as a preservative and in a 
competitive trial of antiseptics made in Paris more than twenty years 
ago, carbonic acid and sulphurous gas were the most successful of all 
agents used. 

Again in 1866 Mr. Shaler endeavored to introduce the use of drv and 
chemically pure carbonic acid gas, but as yet with very little favor. 

Carbonic Dioxide and Monoxide Combined .—The deportment of 
beef in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, to which carbonic oxide has been 
added, is curious. A number of cylinders were filled in the usual way 
with such a mixture and opened at the end of two or three weeks; in 
each case the flesh had the smell and taste of good, pure meat, but it was 
not of the gray color which meat preserved in carbonic acid gas gradually 
takes. It appeared in the interior, as well as on the outside, of a bright 
flesh red color, and on the surface here and there, there were white 
round masses of fungoid growth of the size of a twenty-five-cent piece, 
which were removed with the slightest rubbing. The flesh lying just below 
these was found to have the same bright red color as that already 
described. Meat which had been for three weeks in such a gaseous 
mixture gave a broth, which, in good taste and freshness could hardly be 
distinguished from freshly made soup; and the boiled meats could not be 
distinguished either in appearance or taste. The property of carbonic 
acid to preserve meat suggests a use for the large supplies of this gas 


4 


METHODS OF PRESERVATION. 


45 


evolved from the earth in many localities. Some manufacturers, taking 
as a basis the antiseptic properties of carbonic acid gas, have brought 
before the public a class of metallic goods styled self-embalming caskets. 
Theoretically, the principal is good; but the requirements of its prac¬ 
tical usefulness are so numerous that the simple application of the gas 
outside of the body will, in a great majority of cases, prove ineffectual. 

The caskets are provided, on the under part of the lid, with a recep¬ 
tacle, into which is introduced, through a vent hole in the lid, some 
marble dust and sulphuric acid ; immediately upon the mixture of these 
two substances, carbonic acid is generated, which, being heavier than 
air, falls to the bottom of the casket, and displacing the air contained 
in the casket, drives it out, by means of its superior density, through 
the vent hole purposely left open in the lid of the casket. After the 
space of from ten to fifteen minutes, which is generally sufficient for the 
gas to replace the atmosphere contained inside the casket, the vent hole 
is closed with a rubber cork, fitting tightly, and the process of preserva¬ 
tion thus ends. As we have stated before, the principle is good, but the 
practical result is very seldom satisfactory. 

This generation of carbonic acid gas in an air-tight metallic casket, 
is a good auxiliary to the preservation of a body after this same body has 
been properly embalmed, inasmuch as it destroys effectually the oxygena¬ 
tion of the corpse. But the circumstances, morbid or otherwise, which 
modify the preservation of a body under different conditions, make it 
impossible to depend solely upon that means as being certain and effica¬ 
cious. Dupre, as has already been mentioned employed in 1845 a mix¬ 
ture of carbonic acid and sulphurous gases a solution of which was suc¬ 
cessfully injected into the blood vessels of the body. Thus prepared 
bodies were preserved for days and it is said even for weeks. His exact 
formula is not given. 

Sulphurous acid exists at ordinary temperature and pressure in the 
gaseous form ; it is one, however, of the most easily liquified gases. It 
is produced always when sulphur burns either in air or in pure oxygen ; 
sulphur not being capable of passing directly to a higher degree of oxida¬ 
tion. In the burning of sulphur, the volume of sulphurous acid gas 
formed is exactly equal to the amount of oxygen consumed. Sulphurous 
acid gas may also be easily prepared by heating three parts of flowers of 
sulphur with four of peroxide of manganese. The reaction is very sim¬ 
ple; one part of the sulphur uniting with the metal, the rest with the 
oxygen, form sulphide of manganese, and sulphurous acid. 

Sulphurous acid is absorbed by water. It is colorless and transparent, 
possessing an odor peculiarly irritating (the smell of burning sulphur) 
and cannot be breathed. Water dissolves about thirty-seven times its 
volume of sulphurous acid. The solution possesses the properties of the 


40 


METHODS OF PRESERVATION. 


gas in a very high degree, and bleaches vegetable colors with great 
power ; when kept for some time it gradually absorbs oxygen, and the 
sulphurous becomes changed into sulphuric acid. The sulphurous acid 
is one of the feeblest acids, and is expelled from its combinations by al¬ 
most all but the carbonic acid. 

An embalming process, patented in New Jersey in 1880, consisted in 
removing the brains and intestines, filling the cavities with cotton, sat¬ 
in ated with a compound of saltpetre , sulphurous acid gas and water, 
then closing the cavities, subjecting the body to the action of sulphur¬ 
ous acid gas, and finally steeping the body in the same compound. 

Richardson’s Ammonia is recommended by Richardson to dilate the 
bloodvessels, preparatory to the injection of other preservatives. 

An atmosphere saturated with vapor of ether , chloroform, bisulphide 
of carbon, prussic acid or benzine, is said to preserve organic matter 
perfectly, if in an air tight vessel. Martin (1868) recommends as a 
temporary preservative to wrap the body in a sheet and place it in a lead 
coffin on a layer of bran, wool, cotton, tan, or even sand and sprinkle 
with two quarts of rectified sulphuric ether. Solder thfe lead coffin be¬ 
fore closing the wooden one. Such a body would keep longer if the 
intestines were removed, and a substance substituted which readily 
absorbed the preservative liquid. 

Solutions of Metallic Salts. 

These embrace our most valuable arterial preservatives whose inject¬ 
ions nevertheless sometimes fail from the presence of clots in the arteries. 

Salts of Alumina .—Many of these are used, most frequently perhaps 
of all, alum or the double sulphate of alumina and potash, or ammonia. 
(See alum.) Ordinary alum, according to Gannal, is an unprofitable 
method of preservation, for the reason, that a pound of alum solution 
contains but eighteen grains of alumina, hence he sought for other salts 
of alumina in which there should be a larger proportion of the base. His 
famous solutions varied in ingredients and in strength. One formula 
for injection consisted of equal parts of sulphate and chloride of alum¬ 
inium, dissolved in water to a density of thirty-four degrees Beaume. 
Dumas reported to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, in 1837, that acetate 
of alumina, obtained by the action of acetate of lead on sulphate of 
alumina and potash, dissolved in water, density eighteen degrees 
Beaume, if five to six quarts were injected into the body, would preserve 
it five to six months. 

The same salt of alumina obtained by the reaction of sulphate of 
alumina and acetate of lead, would preserve a body four months. 
Sulphate of alumina alone would preserve it two months. The density 
of the solutions of acetate and chloride of aluminium should be gradu- 


METHODS OF PKESEKVATJLOH . 


47 


atecl by the state of the atmosphere. To preserve a body indefinitely, 
the solution should be twenty degrees Beau me; a layer of varnish would 
prevent too rapid drying of the body. 

Sulphate of Alumina (purified from iron), sixty parts, with water 
forty, and oxide of zinc six parts, dissolved and filtered, evaporated to a 
density of 1.35 (thirty-eight degrees Beaume), has also been used. 

Hy rtl of Vienna sometimes used, thirty-five p. c. alcohol, with a 
small addition of acetate of alumina (in one to twelve solution). 

Salts of Zinc. —The chloride was first brought into prominence by 
Dr. Sucquet in 1847, when a commission of the Academy of Medicine, 
Paris, reported favorably upon his process. A body which he had 
injected and had been buried for two years, was found on being dis¬ 
interred to be as supple and perfect as if just placed in the coffin. The 
commission thought it might have been preserved indefinitely. He used 
a watery solution of chloride of zinc at forty degrees Beaume; that is 
about thirty-five p. c. For injection it was diluted with one-fifth of its 
volume of water. He injected by the popliteal artery. 

The French codex for 1856 recommends the liquefied chloride of zinc 
one part, distilled water two parts, dissolved and filtered. Density, 1.33 
at 36 degrees Beame. A five p. c. solution injected into the carotid will 
preserve temporarily. 

Straus-Durckheim (1842) recommended the injection of a sat¬ 
urated solution of sulphate of zinc, as a permanent preservative. 

Felhol and later Falconi proposed a concentrated solution. A solu¬ 
tion of one part of the sulphate in two parts of water has been success¬ 
fully used; a five per cent solution will preserve temporarily. 

Dr. B. W. Richardson, London, (1875) recommends zinc colloid, or a 
solution of chloride of zinc dissolved in styptic colloid. 

Salts of Mercury. Corrosive Sublimate dissolved in strong alcohol 
is one of the oldest and best methods of preserving (See ChaussieFs 
method page 38), but it is both costly and dangerous. ■ 

Sauter (1885) recommends for temporary preservation, filling the 
coffin with woodwool charged with corrosive sublimate, one part in 
alcohol 100. Instead of woodwool, sawdust, bran, etc., may be used. 
The body should be previously washed with the solution diluted with 
ten parts of water. 

Arsenical Salts. —Tranchini, of Naples, was probably the first to use 
arsenious acid as a preservative injection, employing for this purpose for 
each body two pounds of white arsenic, suspended in clear water, or 
dilute alcohol, colored with carmine. This is efficient, but it favors desic¬ 
cation and is a very dangerous substance to handle. The same objection 
applies to the method of Worth and Durand. 


48 


METHODS OF PRESERVATION. 


This process, often employed in Europe, lias given very satisfactory 
results, and seems to deserve attention. 

The solution employed as an injecting fluid in this method is com¬ 
posed of arsenious acid, carbonate of soda and water. (See formula.) 

The stomach is opened and emptied of its contents; the bowels, 
also, must be subjected to the same process. The trachea is punctured, 
and the bronchial tubes completely filled with the solution through the 
opening thus made. The stomach and intestines should be injected with 
the solution, and also the surrounding parts. 

The right carotid artery is selected as the point of injection, instead 
of the left, for the following reasons : The right common carotid artery 
is shorter than the left; it is also anterior, and in consequence of pro¬ 
ceeding from a branch, instead of from the main trunk, is larger than 
its fellow. 

After the injection has proceeded upwards, until the arteries of the 
head and neck are filled, a very small puncture may be cut into the 
jugular vein, and the blood allowed to escape at that point until the flow 
decreases, when the veins may be tied up. 

The nozzle of the injector is then turned in a downward direction 
and the injection continued until a suflicient quantity of the liquid has 
been injected. The artery is then neatly tied up and the wound brought 
together and sewed up. 

Some of the same solution may also be poured around the bowels 
before and after their being replaced in their former position, and the 
opening in the abdomen is then closed. 

Arsenious acid and arsenite of soda are forbidden by the French law, 
because of the medico-legal questions which would arise in case of sus¬ 
pected poisoning, but the substances are cheap and good preservatives. 
Seseman (1873) of St. Petersburg recommends injecting a solution of 
arsenite of soda and carbolic acid each in glycerine and water. For 
other preservative compounds containing arsenic see formulae 5, 7, 25, 
29, 33, 52, 73, 95, 98, 99, 100, 123, 133, 134, 135. 

Hyposulphite of soda, saturated solution, will preserve bodies two to 
three months. It is better to wash out the bloodvessels first with water, 
and then inject the solution. By contact with the air, the hyposulphite 
is changed into the sulphate and loses its antiseptic power. 






- 





t 









































■: • ' •• $ 1 

. 


























































Plate JI 



a. 





3 W &' : 

:/;J\ ‘y^lp 




'fsr 1 - asBISii*;?, >-rv 
S'*.;-..'-' ', .---■■% 

t T'-PsNltl 

Etr >TY- y»» 


kg* •; 


w'-^r i ’ 


Hg 


,v\a 

^ yshB 


. I I 

'« 5 Wi 


* ■'BsSkbSs 

fisaas 


ii: 


Sfoina' 




E&v£>/. 7 








. 


Copyrrdhf 1886. 




















POSITION OF ABDOMINAL AND THORACIC ORGANS. 


49 


(Explanation of Plate 2.) 


a. 

Windpipe. 

b. 

Cross-section of bone. 

h. 

Heart (right ventricle). 

p. 

Pulmonary artery. 

a . a . 

Arch of the aorta. 

cl. d. 

Diaphragm. 

d. v. c. 

Descending vena cava. 

1. c. c. 

Left common carotid. 

r. c. 

Right carotid. 

v . /. 

Jugular vein. 

th. 

Thyroid body. 

b\ 

Cross-section clavicle. 

b\ 

Cross-section of humerus. 

b 3 . 

Cross-section of scapulae. 

b\ 

Cross-section of rib (removed in plate). 

b\ 

Cross-section of pelvic bones. 

b \ 

Cross-section of femur. 

r. 1 

Right lung. 

l. l 

Left lung. 

st. 

Stomach. 

L. 

Liver. 

sp. 

Spleen. 

■ V. 

Intestines. 

V. 

Small intestines. 

bl 

Bladder. 

m. 

Muscles. 

ax. a. 

Axillary artery. 

ax. v. 

Axillary vein. 

(j. b. 

Gall bladder. 


III. ORGANIC PRESERVATIVES. 

Glycerine is a good preservative, but is comparatively expensive ; a 
small quantity of arsenic may be added to it to prevent the mould ap¬ 
pearing on a body after a time and also to prevent the attack of insects. 
It is stable, does not evaporate readily. The metallic salts, sugar, tan¬ 
nin, creosote, carbolic acid, or thymic acid may be added to it. 

Howse (1871-76) of London, recommends glycerine and arsenic. 

’ Arsenious acid dissolves only in small quantity in cold glycerine ; but if 
the latter be heated it will take up almost any amount ; a pound of arse¬ 
nic to a quart of glycerine is enough. Filter before using. The mus- 
4 


50 


METHODS OF PRESERVATION. 


cles retain their red color for months ; the skin gradually darkens. The 
total cost of injecting is about $7.50. 

Devergie announced to the Academy of Medicine, Paris, in 1809, that 
bodies injected with a mixture of glycerine and carbolic acid had been 
preserved several months without developing any odor. Packousky of 
Paris (1867) used a solution of glycerine, acetate soda, carbolic acid. 
(See Formulae.) Seseman recommends replacing the acetate by the arse- 
nite and to add ten parts of water. Sauter (1885) recommends injection 
of arteries with carbolic acid, glycerine, alcohol, water. (See Formulae 
08, 69.) He says it will preserve the body for several days. The surface 
of the body may be lubricated with vaseline or covered with varnish of 
sandarac to which one percent of carbolic acid is added. The cavities 
of the body may be filled with sublimated wool. For other formulae 
containing carbolic acid see Nos. 135, 134, 133, 92, 74, 68, 70, 5. 

Creosote, etc. Any substance which requires much water for its 
solution is sure to fail; and it is probably that this is the reason that 
creosote in watery solution has not answered expectations. See Formula? 
No. 22, 23, 24, 29, 33, 46. 

The same is true of carbolic, salicylic, thymolic acid and other organic 
antiseptics, of which more can be learned under their appropriate section. 

Chloral Hydrate, Dr. W. W. Keen, of Philadelphia, highly recom¬ 
mends (1875) this as a preservative. He says the body is perfectly pre¬ 
served, has a life-like appearance, a pinkish skin, no blanching, shrivel¬ 
ing, nor hardening. An impure chloral will do, and it is cheap. It has 
no odor. It does not destroy the clothing. Insects are not attracted. 
Without further particularizing we may say that all of the long list of 
antiseptics, ancient and modern are now used only according to modern 
methods i. e., by injection of the arterial system with efficient 
antiseptics and disinfectants which percolate all the tissues from 
within outwards, instead of the earlier methods of maceration, pack¬ 
ing the body in spices and imputrescible substances, which are ineffi¬ 
cient and disappointing. Preservation by means of gaseous compounds 
has been discussed elsewhere, but for the present it is sufficient to sav 
that in the preservation of the human body they have as yet failed 
to answer the expectations of those who have introduced them, besides 
being bulky and inconvenient to handle. The use of the refrigerator 
and ice have become almost as obsolete as the earlier methods of 
inclosing the body in a cask of Sherry or Madeira, for chemistry, 
during the last half century, has placed in the hands of the progressive 
funeral director a score and more of efficient antiseptics, so that the 
chief part of his labor today consists in the judicious selection of 
the chemical best adapted for the particular case under consideration. 
Whether it shall be in that particular case creosote, alcohol, tannin. 


EMBALMING. 


51 


bichloride of mercury, the salts of iron, of zinc, of alumina, carbolic 
acid, arsenic, the protochloride of tin, thymol, glycerine, the borates, 
salicylic acid, etc., depends upon the requirements of the case, and 
these requirements can only be appreciated and properly met by one who 
has carefully studied the laws of chemistry and the composition of the 
human body. Here, as elsewhere, knowledge is power, and an ignorant 
embalmer must certainly meet with humiliating failures which a wider 
knowledge would have enabled him to overcome, or still better anticipate. 
For this knowledge it is requisite that he should have a good acquaint¬ 
ance with the human body, its more important parts and especially its 
landmarks. As these are indispensable prerequisites to all scientific em¬ 
balming, we shall endeavor in the next section of this work to review 
succinctly the histology and morphology of the human body, in so far as 
it is necessary for the practical undertaker. Having briefly reviewed 
these we shall then be in a position to consider understandingly the whys 
and wherefores of the best modern methods and how they should be 
modified to meet the various exigencies that may arise. Without this, em¬ 
balming can be nothing more than rule of thumb, but with this compre¬ 
hensive knowledge it becomes the crowning achievement of a profession 
which requires for success the wisdom of the anatomist, the skill of the 
surgeon, and the untiring patience and ingenuity of the chemist. 


/ 




. ■ ' ■ . 




























































































x r 






































































. 


















r 


SECTION II. 


A. The Morphology, Histology and Anatomy of the Human 
Body, so Far as Required for the Embalmer's Art. 

B. Proofs of Death. 

C. Method of Making an Autopsy. 


v 


53 







SECTION II. 


A. The Morphology Histology and Anatomy of the Human 
Body, so Far as Required for the Embalmer’s Art. 

“ The normal man's weight is 154 pounds, made up as follows: 
Muscles and their appurtenances, 68 pounds; skeleton, 24 pounds; skin, 
lOg pounds; fat, 28 pounds; brain, 3 pounds ; thoracic viscera, 3^ 
pounds; abdominal viscera, 11 pounds; blood which would drain 
from the body, 7 pounds. The heart of such a man should beat 
75 times a minute, and he should breathe fifteen times a minute. In 24 
hours he should vitiate 1,750 cubic feet of pure air to the extent of one 
per cent. He would throw off by the skin 18 ounces of water, 300 grains 
of solid matter, and 400 grains of carbonic acid, every 24 hours; and his 
total loss during that period would be 6 pounds of water and a little 
more than 2 pounds of other matter.” Huxley. 

Bibliography . —Foster’s Physiology, 

Carpenter’s Physiology, 

Gray’s Anatomy, 

Bellamy’s Surgical Anatomy, 

Klein’s Histology, 

Virchow’s Post Mortem Examinations, 

Tidy’s Forensic Medicine, 

Huxley’s Physiology, 

Roser’s Vademecum, 

Clarke’s Text Book on Embalming, 

Renouard’s Undertaker’s Manual, 

Weiss’ Anatomy. 

Morphology and Physiology of the Human Body. 

The human body may be studied either morphologically, that is as 
regards its shape, or histologically, or as regards its structure. A minute 
knowledge of the anatomy or of the histology of the human body can 
only be acquired by the labor of a lifetime, but such knowledge is only 
necessary for the learned anatomist or histologist. 




56 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


The practical funeral director requires a good general knowledge of 
the parts of the body, and a special knowledge of their microscopic struc¬ 
ture only so far as it will assist him to a better knowledge of the changes 
produced by disease, and to more scientific methods of preservation. 
But neither of these can he ever have without that study and weariness 
of the flesh which Solomon declares is inseparable from all wisdom. 
Hence much that appears in this section may seem to be dry and weari¬ 
some in its detail, notwithstanding great pains has been taken to omit 
all that seemed to have no direct bearing upon the purpose of this work. 
Possibly much of it is already known to the progressive funeral director, 
but where this is occasionally true, the cases where a more intimate 
knowledge of the human body is not greatly needed are exceedingly 
exceptional. Line upon line is as necessary here as elsewhere, for that 
accurate knowledge upon which alone scientific embalming can exist. 

Shakspeare likens man to a “ forked radish with a head fantastically 
carved upon it.” Huxley, less poetically and more truthfully says the 
human body is essentially a compound tube, or parallel tubes of very 
unequal caliber, as may be seen by the accompanying cross section, made 
just below the shoulders. 


Figure 1. 



Cross section of thorax at the level of the shoulders, (a). Thoracic cavity, (b). Verte¬ 
bral cavity. 

(a). The anterior tube is the cavity in which the lungs are contained, 
and (b) is the much smaller posterior tube in which the spinal cord is 
safely encased. The relative proportion between the anterior and dorsal 
tubes is about as represented, with the exception of the head, where we 
find the relative size of the tubes reversed, and the posterior cavity which 
contains the brain much larger than the anterior or buccal cavity. This 
is well shown in cut 2, which represents a longitudinal section of a 
human body made down an imaginary perpendicular line, called the axis, 
dividing the body lengthwise into two exact halves, as it were by a great 














NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


57 


* Figure 2. 


knife. Such a section would exhibit the cut surface of thirty- 
three bones bound together into a long column which lies much 

nearer the back than the front aspect of 
the body. This is called the spinal column, 
its separate bones, vertebrae, and the canal which 
they inclose, the spinal canal. This spinal 
canal contains a long white cord, known as the 
spinal cord, which is a prolongation of the 
brain and a no less important part of the ner¬ 
vous system. As may be inferred from the 
above, the brain also lies in the dorsal tube, or 
rather the upper portion of it, which is ex¬ 
panded to form the skull, or brain case (See 
Fig. 2), which with its contents constitutes 
the larger portion of the head. The brain, 
like the rest of the human bodv, is made 
of two symmetrical halves (joined together 
by a stout band, the corpus callosum figure 3), 
after the fashion of the late Siamese twins. 
The consistence, color, and general appearance 
of the surface of the brain is very like that of 
well cooked and stirred hasty pudding. It is 
not, however, a solid body, but contains 
within it four cavities which are known as 
ventricles (See Fig. 3. v. v. v-v.) and which 
are filled with a watery fluid, (See Chemistry of 
the Human Body for composition of cerebro-spi- 
nal fluid), which bathes both the surface of the 
brain, its ventricles, the spinal cord, and acts as a watercushion or bum¬ 
per, to prevent these soft structures from receiving injuries from sudden 
blows or jolts. The brain itself is scarcely firmer in consistence than 
blanc mange, to which it has frequently been likened. When cut into, 
its grayish appearance is confined to a thin layer upon its outer 
surface. (See Fig. 3.) Internal to this we have what is known as 
the white substance of the brain; the grey is known as its cortex. 
Under the microscope these tissues are shown to be made up of myriads 
of “little star-like bodies (nerve cells) connected by innumerable millions 
of pellucid threads.” If the nerve cells largely predominate, we have 
what is known as the grey nerve matter; if the threads,the white 



*A, a diagrammatic section of the human body taken vertically through the median 
plane. C. S. the cerbro-spinal nervous system; N , the cavity of the nose; M, that of the 
mouth ; Al ., A\. the alimentary canal represented as a simple straight tube; H, the heart; D, 
thediaphragm; Sy. the sympathetic ganglia. 








58 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 



blanc mange like substance 
already mentioned. These two 
kinds of nerve matter are 
found in all nerves, great or 
small, for we find in them 
both grey and white nerve 
substance. To the naked eye 
a nerve looks like a bit of v 
wet, white cotton thread of 
varying size. Under the mi¬ 
croscope it becomes a series of 
concentric cylinders, the in- v 
nermost of which is known as 
the axis («) a pale, faintly 
fibrillated band or cylinder 
known as the grey substance 
of P u r k i n j e. 
This has a very 
delicate trans¬ 
parent sheath 
( b ), and exter¬ 
nal to this we 
find the white 
substance of 
Schwann (c) an- 


Figure 3. 


Cross-section of the skull and brain, made just 
behind the ears, showing the ventricles, corpus cal¬ 
losum, cerebrum and the longitudinal and transverse 
sinuses.—From Rosers’ Vademecum. 


Fig. 4. Medul¬ 
la ted Nerve- 
fibres. 


alogous to the 

white substance of the brain, and in turn has its external 
sheath or neurilemma. 

During life the axis cylinder is in a semi-fluid condition 
like half-melted fat which cools and solidifies after death. 
Through this passes nerve force whatever that may be, 
and whereever gray matter is found there apparently nerve 
force is generated. This is done not alone in the gray mat- 


A, B, showing 
on a surface 
view the reti¬ 
culated nature 
of the medul¬ 
lary sheath; c, 
two nerve-fib¬ 
ers showing 
the axis cylin¬ 
der, the med¬ 
ullary sheath 
with their ver¬ 
tically- arrang¬ 
ed minute rods, 
and the deli¬ 
cate neurilem¬ 
ma or outer 
hyaline sheath. 
(Atlas.) 


ter of the brain and spinal cord but also in little nerve 
knots or ganglia (See Fig. 5.), which act the part of minor 
brains and are placed where is needed no conscious thought 
for action to carry on the functions of the body. There 
are for instance twelve or fifteen of these in the heart and 
their duty is to see that the heart beats regularly day and 
night without troubling the brain about it. Fig. 1 shows 
the long double series of these knots or ganglia, lying in 
front of the back bone for nearly its whole extent. These 
are known as the sympathetic ganglia, or sympathetic 




















NERVOUS SYSTEM. 


5‘J 


nervous system. This involuntarily 
regulates all the functions of the 
body. Blushing, chill, heat, fever 
and inflammation are all under the 
control of this system, and in fact 
a very large proportion of all of the 
work done bv the body is done under 
the direction of this part of the nerv¬ 
ous system. These sympathetic nerve 
fibers are generally non-medulated and 
are connected both with ganglia and 
the spinal nerves, and follow in gen¬ 
eral the line of blood vessels whose 
size they regulate. In the thorax and 
abdomen they form great networks, 
or plexuses as they are called about the 
heart and stomach. See cut 6. Con¬ 
sequently there are two systems of 
nerves; one called the “cerebro-spinal” 
and the other the “sympathetic, or 
organic nervous system.” The latter is 
involuntary and presides over the functions of animal life, in other words 

' it is the system of 
*/ 

nerves that run the 
machinery of t h e 
body. The circula¬ 
tion, etc., as has 
already been said, is 
controlled by this 
system of nerves. 
In regard to the 

c* 

other, the cerebro¬ 
spinal nervous sys¬ 
tem is composed of 
two kinds of nerves, 
viz.: the nerves of 
motion which in a 
normal state are 
controlled by the 
will, and the nerves 
of sensation. 

During sus¬ 
pended animation 



Figure. 5. 



SYMPATHETIC GANGLION CELL OF 
MAN. 

The ganglion cell is multipolar; each 
process receiving a neurilemma from 
the capsule of the cell becomes a non- 
medullated nerve-fiber. 










60 


ANATOMY AND IIISTOLOGY. 


and catalepsy it would seem that only the nerves of motion are 
absolutely dormant from the fact that suffering and pain are caused 
by the use of electricity. During this suspension of the cerebro¬ 
spinal system the organic, or sympathetic system still continues to 
perform its work in a less active degree, until sooner or later stim¬ 
ulus is again imparted to the motor nerves, and motion is re-estab¬ 
lished in all the muscles of the body giving power to move and 
speak. The different functions of the cerebro-spinal nerves is well 
illustrated in the annexed cut, which represents a horizontal section of 
the spinal cord through the anterior and posterior nerves at the same 
level. There are thirty-one pairs of these spinal nerves, and consequently 
twice as many roots given off in two lateral series from each half of the 
cord. Like the brain the spinal cord is made up of white and grayish nerve 
matter, the white matter being external and the gray arranged somewhat 
like a pair of crescents back to back with their tijfs or cornua prolonged to 
form the anterior (A.B.) and posterior ( P.R .) spinal nerves which soon 

after leaving the cord 
unite to form a common 
nerve trunk. Years of 
patient experimentation 
have at last proven that 
the functions of these two 
component parts of the 
spinal nerves are widely 
different, viz.: the fibers 
arising from the anterior 
roots are motor and those 
originating from the 
posterior roots are sensory, or in other words, all the power that 
the spinal nerves have to produce muscular contractions lies in the 
fibers of the anterior roots, and all of their sensory powers reside 
in the posterior roots and ganglia which act independently of the 
brain. In fact, the spinal cord may be considered a series of tinv, 
or minor brains, 32 of which are piled one atop of another. It would 
be interesting to study each of these more in detail, but it must be 
remembered that here we seek only such general knowledge of the ner¬ 
vous system as is necessary for a general acquaintance with the human 
body. The nervous system might be likened to the battery and wires 
of an electro-motor, of which the body represents all the other parts, and 
no piece of human machinery has ever yet been so exquisitely constructed 
as the rounded box with motors and locomotors, which we call the body. 

This box proper, or trunk of the body as it is generally known, 
is made up of the ribs, spinal column, pelvis, and the various muscles 


Figure 7. 



The Spinal Cord.—A. A front view of a portion of the 
eord. On the right side the anterior roots, A.R., are en¬ 
tire; on the left side they are cut, to show the posterior 
roots, P.R. B. A transverse section of the cord. A, the 
anterior fissure; P, the posterior fissure; G, the central 
canal; C, the grey matter, IV, the white matter; A.R., 
the anterior root. P.R ., the posterior root, Gn. the gang¬ 
lion, and T, the trunk, of a spinal nerve. 












DIAPHRAGM, ETC. 


01 


affixed to them, and extends from the shoulders to the groins. It con¬ 
sists, as has already been said, of a bony framework, to which the limbs 
and muscles are attached and contains within it two cavities of nearly 
equal size, viz.: the thoracic and abdominal. See cut 1. The entrance 
to both of these cavities is through the mouth, and it should always be 
remembered that the opening to the thoracic cavity lies in front of that 
to the stomach, or abdominal cavity. See cut 2, page 57. Fuller direct¬ 
ions in regard to the precautions to be observed to enter the oesophagus 
instead of the windpipe will be given in the section on the methods of 
embalming, for the present section embraces only a description of the 
abdominal and thoracic cavities proper. 

These cavities are separated one from another by an elastic partition 

or diaphragm. (A. A. See 


Figure 8. 



1. Tne central leaflet of the tendinous center. 

2. The left or smallest leaflet. 

3. The right leaflet. 

4. Fasciculus from the ensiform cartilage. 

5. Ligamentum arcuatum externum of the left 

side. 

6. Ligamentum arcuatum internum. 

7. A small arched opening occasionally found, 

through which the least splanchnic nerve 
passes. 

8. Right crus. 

9. Fourth lumbar vertebra. 

10. Left crus. 

11. Aortic opening. 

12. CEsophageal opening. 

13. Opening for the inferior vena cava. 

14. Psoas magnus passing beneath the ligamentum 

arcuatum internum. 

15. Quadratus lumborum passing beneath the liga¬ 

mentum arcuatum externum. 


plate II.) This diaphragm is 
really a fan-shaped muscle with 
its handle toward the backbone. 
Its front edge is attached to 
the sternum or breastbone, and 
its sides slope downward and 
are fastened to the lower six 
ribs (Heath). Consequently it 
does not form a horizontal par¬ 
tition but arches upward on 
either side in shape not unlike 
a policeman's helmet, but un¬ 
like that in it is not stiff but 
exceedingly flexible, changing 
its position with every inspira¬ 
tion and expiration. 

The diaphragm is perforated 
with three large openings, viz.: 
The aortic (11), through which 
pass the aorta, thoracic duct 
and the vena azygos major ; 
second, the caval (13), further 
front, through which the vena 
cava inferior passes, and thirdly 
the oesophageal (12) through 
which the oesophagus and the 
vagi nerves descend. 

The position of the dia¬ 
phragm during respiration de¬ 
pends somewhat upon the size 










02 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


of the abdominal viscera in immediate contact with it, viz.: the stomach, 
intestines, and liver. During normal expiration its right arch ascends 
to the level of the fifth rib. Forced expiration brings it to a level with 
the right fourth costal cartilage in front, with the fifth, sixth and seventh 
ribs on each side and with the eighth rib behind, while the left arch of 
the diaphragm is always lower than the right by two ribs. During forced 
inspiration, the diaphragm descends to a line extending from the ensi- 
form cartilage to the tenth rib. (Fig. 9.) Its position after death is 
usually arched, being concave toward the abdomen, particularly on the 
right side, as expiration is usually the last vital act, but its exact posi¬ 
tion depends upon the relative size and condition of the abdom¬ 
inal organs. Gaseous distension of the stomach and intestines may push 
it upwards to its highest limits of forced expiration, but being fastened 
as it is on all sides to bony structures it cannot rise beyond this, unless 
ruptured. As has already been said, this diaphragm divides the great 
cavity of the trunk into two others, known as the thoracic and abdom¬ 
inal. (Plate II.) 

THE THORACIC CAVITY. 

The thoracic cavity, or chest, as it is usually called, lies entirely above 
the diaphragm, and contains the right and left lungs and between them 
the heart and great vessels soon to be described. Their approximate sit¬ 
uation may be fixed by remembering that a bullet would pierce the heart 
if it entered the chest at a right angle just above the fifth rib and to the 
middle line just above the left nipple. A wound exactly in the middle 
line would also involve the heart and great vessels, and to the right 
would escape the heart but pass through the right lung. A knife thrust 
into the lower intercostal spaces would wound the base of the lung during 
inspiration, but if done during expiration the lung itself might escape 
injury. (See Figure 9.) 

THE LUNGS. 

The lungs, as may be seen from plate 1, lie immediately below the 
windpipe and are spongy organs admirably designed to allow the external 
air to come in close proximity to the blood circulating through them. 
They are placed in the thorax, or chest, each lung enclosed in a tough 
sack called the pleura. Each pleura is a closed sack, one holding the 
right lung and the other the left and not communicating one with 
another. The two pleurae do not meet in the middle line of the chest 
except at one point in front, consequently an interspace is left between, 
which is called the mediastinum and which contains all the viscera of the 
thorax except the lungs. The point at which the pleurae touch is a little 
above the middle of the breastbone, a fact which should be remembered 
when it is desired to enter the mediastinum or the heart via this route. 


RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 


63 


Ill the cavity of the pleurae we find the lungs, which extend from 1 to 1^ 
inches above the collar bones to the diaphragm, or from the root of the 
neck to the sixth and seventh ribs. The broad concave bases of the lungs 
rest upon the convex surface of the diaphragm (See figure 9), the thin 
lower edges of the lungs, fitting accurately into the wedge-like space be¬ 
tween the ribs and the diaphragm. The lungs are of unequal size, some¬ 
what conical in shape and lie in the right and left sides of the thorax re¬ 
spectively, the base of the right lung being considerably hollowed out by 
the bulging upward of the liver, which projects upward as far as the fifth 
rib; the base of the left lung is also concave, though to a less degree by the 
upward projection of the stomach, spleen and left lobe of the liver. 

See annexed diagram, cut 9. 

The right lung is the 
larger and broader, owing to 
the inclination of the heart 
to the left side. It is short¬ 
er than the left lung by 
about two inches, owing to 
the projection upward of 
the liver upon the right side. 
It has three lobes, while the 
left lung has but two. What 
is known as the root of the 
lung is the collection of ves¬ 
sels by which each lung is 
connected to the heart and 
trachea. Each root is made 
up of the bonchial tube, the 
pulmonary artery, the bron¬ 
chial arteries and veins, and 
the pulmonary nerves lym- 
pathics and glands, enclosed 
in a reflection of the pleura. 
The weight of the right lung 
is about two ounces greater 
than the left, and together 
they weigh about forty-two 
ounces ; at birth their color 
is pinkish; in adult life 
they have a dark slate color, 
the lungs is smooth, shining 
and marked with numerous polyhedral spaces corresponding to the lobules 
of the organ and the area of each of these is crossed with numerous 


Figure 9. 





Diagram of the relations of the thoracic viscera to 
the walls of the chest (altered from Anger). 1. Situa¬ 
tion of pulmonary orifice. 2. Left auriculo-ventricular 
orifice. 3. Orifice of aorta. 4. Right auriculo-ventri- 
cular orifice, 5. Limit of the anterior and inferior 
border of left lung in complete expiration. 6. Ditto of 
right lung. 7. Limit of left lung in inspiration. 8. 
Ditto of right lung in inspiration. 9. Limit of pleura. 
10. Ditto. 11. Superior cul-de-sac of left lung. 12. Dit¬ 
to of right lung. 13. Right auricle. 14. Right auricular 
appendage. 15. Left auricle. 16. Limit of diaphragm 
in complete expiration. 17. Ditto, ditto. 18. Ditto, dit¬ 
to, in complete inspiration. 


growing darker with age. The surface of 













04 


AX ATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


lighter lines. The substance of the lungs is light, spongy and porous, so 
that it floats on water and crackles when handled, owing to the air in the 
interstices of its lobules. Each of these lobules contains one of the 
branches of the bronchial tubes with its terminal air cells, vessels and 
fibrous tissue holding them together. These air cells are blind pouches 
in which the subdivisions of the bronchi terminate, and it will be remem¬ 
bered that the bronchi are branches or prolongations of the wind¬ 
pipe, which, under the name of main bronchus, enters the lungs and 

divides and subdivides into smaller bronchi, right and left until, as has 
already been said, each of these bronchioles terminates in an air cell, 
or alveolus, as it is sometimes called. 

The form of these air cells is well-shown 
in the annexed cut, which gives a cross- 
section of one of these ultimate bronchioles 
and its terminal vesicles. Each of these 
is held in a network of capillaries, which 
inclose each alveolus the lungs in a 

sort of basketwork of blood vessels. Each 

air cell measures only about one seventy-fifth 
of an inch in diameter, but as there are esti¬ 
mated to be 18,000,000 of these air cells, their 
combined surface amounts to more than two 
hundred square yards, or more than fifty 
times the extent of the surface of the body. 
Through this thin film of tissue, exposed to 
the air on both sides, the entire amount of 
blood in the body flows three times in a 
minute, requiring for its aeration 12,000 quarts 
of air daily. The chemical changes which 
occur in the blood in consequence 
will be described in detail under 
the head of Chemistry of the 
Body, but it should also be remem¬ 
bered that these air cells are rid¬ 
dled with stomata, or minute open¬ 
ings into the lymphatic spaces. 

See Lymphatic vessels and figure 
11. from Klein, which beautifully 
shows these openings as they ap¬ 
pear during inspiration, when 
they are most distinct. Through 
these openings bits of soot and 
other foreign matters, which acci- 



Figure 10. 



Single Lobule of Human 
Lung.—a. Ultimate bronchial 
tube. />. Cavity of lobule. 
c. c. c. Pulmonary cells, or 
vesicles. 







THE HEART. 


65 


dentally pass into the lungs find their way into the lymphatics, and 
through these probably also come in part the frothing and blubber¬ 
ing from the mouth observed after death. The walls of these 
alveoli are made up of the blood vessels already mentioned and yel¬ 
low, elastic tissue, which gives these air cells their elasticity and 
strength. An adult in health breathes about fifteen times to a minute, 
and each act consists first, of inspiration, or a drawing in of the breath; 
second, of expiration or driving it out again; and third, these acts are 
then followed by a short pause. Each inspiration of an adult draws in 
about thirty cubic inches of air, and a chemical examination of the ex¬ 
pired air will show that it differs very materially from that which has 
just been inspired. Its chief difference lies in its loss of oxygen and its 
substitution by carbonic dioxide gas; about eighteen cubic feet of the 
one being exchanged for the other, or, as Huxley puts it: “If a man be 
shut up in a close room, having the form of a cube seven feet each way, 
every particle of air in that room will have passed through his lungs in 
twenty-four hours, and a fourth of the oxygen it contains will be replaced 
by carbonic acid gas.” This exchange of gases takes place directly 
through the cell walls by a process to which the name of osmosis has 
been given, and of which more will be said under the head of the 
Chemistry of the Body, but for the present it is sufficient to remember 
that this change takes place with each breath in each of the eighteen 
million air cells of the lungs, and that during the day we breathe 
in and out about thirty-three hogsheads of air. (See Chemistry of the 
Body.) 

This ceaseless exchange, for it goes on whether we sleep or wake, would 
purify only the blood contained in the capillaries of the lungs were there 
no contrivance for constantly changing the blood. This, however, is 
done every sixteen seconds by means of the heart, a no less important 
organ than the lungs themselves. 

THE HEART. 

The heart is a hollow, muscular organ about the size of an adult's 
fist, of conical shape, located between the right and left lungs, its apex 
lying about an inch and a half from the surface of the body. 

It is inclosed in a fibrous sack, called the pericardium, and lies 
obliquely in the chest and so placed that a bullet penetrating the breast¬ 
bone on a level with the nipple and striking the vertebrae at right angles 
with the axis of the body, would pass through three cavities of the heart, 
viz.: both right and left ventricles and the left auricle. 

Its base, or broad end, is directed upwards and backwards toward the 
right and corresponds to the interval between the fifth and eight dorsal 
vertebrae. Its apex or conical end is directed forward and to the 


66 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


left, and corresponds to the interspace between the cartilage of the fifth 


and sixth ribs, one inch to the 
inner side, and two inches below 
the left nipple. The heart is 
placed behind the lower two- 
thirds of the sternum or breast¬ 
bone, and projects further into 
the left than into the right cavity 
of the chest, extending from the 
median line about three inches to 
the left, and only one-half an 
inch to the right. Its upper 
border would correspond to a line 
drawn across the sternum, on a 
level with the upper border of the 
third costal cartilages; and its 
lower border, to a line drawn 
across the lower end of the glad¬ 
iolus, from the costadiphoid 
articulation of the right side, to 
the point formerly mentioned 
as the situation of the apex. 
The lungs cover the greater 
part of the heart, especially dur¬ 
ing inspiration, at which time 

their borders nearlv meet behind 

«/ 

the sternum. A thin laver of 

t j 

lung tissue covers the roots of all 
the large vessels, but a consider¬ 
able portion of the heart is always 
uncovered by the lungs where 
they recede from one another. 

This “area of heart’s dullness,” 
as it is commonly called, is said 
by Mr. Holden to be indicated, 
roughly, but sufficiently for prac¬ 
tical purposes, by a circle one inch 
in radius, the center of which is 
midway between the nipple and 
the end of the sternum. The 
anterior surface of the heart is 
rounded and convex, directed up¬ 
ward and forward, and formed 


Figure 12. 

Right Side op the Heart Laid Open. 



1. Cavity of right auricle. 

2. Appendix auriculae; in its cavity are seen 

the musculi pectinati. 

3. Superior vena cava, opening into the upper 

part of the right auricle. 

4. Inferior vena cava. 

5. Fossa ovalis; the prominent ridge sur¬ 

rounding it is the annulus ovalis. 

6. Eustachian valve. 

7. Opening of the coronary sinus. 

8. Coronary valve. 

9. Entrance of the auriculo-ventricular open¬ 

ing. Between the figures 1 and 2, two or 
three foramina Thebesii are seen. 
a. Right ventricle. 
h. Cavity of right ventricle. 

c. Conus arteriosus or infundibulum. 

d. Pulmonary artery. 

e. /. Tricuspid valve; e is placed on the left 

curtain, f on the anterior curtain. 

g. One of the musculi papillares, to the apex 

of which the anterior and right curtains 
are connected by the chordae tendineae. 

h. Columnar carneae. 

i. Two musculi papillares of the right cur¬ 

tain. 

Zf. Attachment by chordae tendinae of the 
left limb of the anterior curtain. 

Z, Z. Chordae tendinae. 

m. Semi-lunar valves of the pulmonary art¬ 

ery. 

n. Apex of left appendix auriculae. 

o. Left ventricle. 

p. Ascending aorta. 

q. Its tranverse portion, with the three 

arterial trunks which arise from the arch. 

r. Descending aorta. 













HEART AND CIRCULATION. 


67 


chiefly by the right ventricle ancl part of the left. . Its posterior surface 
is flattened and rests upon the diaphragm, and is formed chiefly by the 
left ventricle. 

The right border of the heart is long, thin, and sharp; the left border 
short, but thick and round. 

The heart, in the adult, measures five inches in length, three 
inches and a half in breadth in the broad part, and two inches and a 
half in thicku ess. The average weight, in the male, varies from ten to 
twelve ounces; in the female, from eight to ten; its proportion to the 
entire weight of the body being as 1 to 169 in males; 1 to 149 in females. 
The heart continues increasing in weight, and also in length, breadth, 
and thickness up to an advanced period of life; this increase is more 
marked in men than in women. 

The heart (See Fig. 12.) is divided by a longitudinal, muscular sep¬ 
tum, or division, into two lateral halves which are known from their 
position as the right and left heart, and each of these is again subdi¬ 
vided by a transverse wall into two cavities known as right and left auri¬ 
cles and ventricles, respectively; the upper cavities on each side being 
called auricles, from their fancied resemblance in shape to an ear. The 
lower cavities are known as the right and left ventricles, according to 
their position. The right is the venous side of the heart, receiving into 
its auricle the dark, or venous, blood of the body through the venae 
cavae which empty into it. The course of the blood from this point is 
as follows : This venous blood passes downwards through the tricuspid 
valve (e. f .) from the right auricle into the right ventricle, whence it is 
propelled by the contraction of the heart into (cl) the pulmonary artery, 
its return into the auricle being prevented by means of the tricuspid 
valve just mentioned, and its regurgitation from the pulmonary artery 
back into the ventricle is similarly prevented by semi-lunar valves (m) 
placed at the cardiac orifice of the artery. By the pulmonary artery the 
blood, still blue and venous, reaches the lungs where it loses its dark 
color by the process already described, and now becomes bright red. 
Having been thus purified, it returns to the heart from the lungs through 
the pulmonary veins which empty into the left auricle of the heart. 
(See Plate VI.) These veins have no valves at their openings into the 
left auricle, and, consequently, there is a slight reflux of blood toward 
the lungs with each contraction of the heart, but the greater part of the 
blood in the left auricle is forced by each impulse of the heart through 
the mitral valve (M.V.), lying between the left auricle and ventricle, into 
the latter, whence by the next contraction of the heart it is forced past the 
semi-lunar valves, at the ventricular orifice of the aorta into the aorta. 
The aortic semi-lunar valves prevent the return of the blood into the 
left side of the heart, and, consequently, it is carried onward through 


08 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


the blood vessels until it reaches the arterial capillaries, and from them 
it percolates into the venous capillaries, and thence into the larger veins, 
and ultimately into the venae cavae, from whence, as we have seen, it 
passes into the right side of the heart, where it again begins the round 
just described (See Plate VI.) through the arteries, veins and heart. 
The channels through which this is accomplished well deserve the careful 
study of the practical embalmer, for they are those through which he must 
accomplish his ends, hence some little space must be given to 

THE BLOOD VESSELS. 

These are of two varieties, viz.: arteries and veins. The arteries are 
cylindrical vessels which convey away the blood from the ventricles of 
the heart. They were originally called arteries from the idea entertained 
by the ancients that these vessels contained only air, which mistake arose 
from the fact the arteries are usually found empty after death. Galen 
was the first to refute this opinion, for as early as his day he was able 
to prove that the arteries contain blood in the living body. Except in 
the case of the pulmonary artery, the blood they contain is the bright 
red, or well aerated. The pulmonary artery, as may be remembered, 
although it is called an artery, conveys venous blood from the heart to 
the lungs whence it is returned by the pulmonary veins to the other side 
of the heart. (This constitutes what is known as the lesser or pulmonary 
circulation.) 

The greater, or general systemic circulation, begins in the aorta or 
the greater artery which arises from the left ventricle and by its various 
subdivisions supplies arterial blood to all parts of the body, whence it is 
gathered up again by the veins and carried back to the right side of the 
heart. The ramifications of the systemic arteries resemble an inverted 
tree whose common trunk would be represented by the aorta and its 
twigs by the arterial capillaries of the surface of the body. 

The capillary arteries are found in nearly every part of the body with 
exception of the hair, nails, epidermis, cartilages and cornea. The 
larger trunks usually occupy the more protected situations, running in 
the limbs along the flexor side, since they are there less exposed to in¬ 
jury. There is considerable variation in the mode of division of the 
arteries; occasionally a short trunk subdivides into several branches at 
the same point, as we observe in the cceliac and thyroid axes; or the ves¬ 
sel may give off several branches in succession, and still continue as the 
main trunk, as is seen in the arteries of the limbs. The usual division is 
dichotomous or double, as for instance, the aorta divides into the two 
common iliacs; and the common carotid, into the external and internal 
carotids. 

The arteries in their distribution, communicate freely with one 


ARTERIES AND VEINS. 


00 


another, forming what is called anastomosis, or inosculation. This com¬ 
munication is very free between the large as well as between the smaller 
branches. Anastomoses between trunks of equal size are found where- 
ever great freedom and activity of the circulation are requisite, as in the 
brain; here the two vertebral arteries unite to form the basilar, and the 
two internal carotid arteries are connected bv a short communicating 
trunk; this is also found in the abdomen, the intestinal arteries having 
very free anastomoses between their larger branches. In the limbs the 
anastomoses are more frequent and of larger size around the joints; the 
branches of an artery above freely inosculating with branches from the 
vessels below; these anastomoses are of considerable interest to the sur¬ 
geon, as it is by their enlargement that a collateral circulation is estab¬ 
lished after the application of a ligature to an artery for the cure of 
aneurism. The smaller branches of arteries anastomose more frequently 
than the larger; and between the smallest twigs, the inosculations become 
so numerous as to constitute a close network that pervades nearly every 
tissue of the body. 

The arteries are dense in structure, of considerable strength, highly 
elastic, and when divided they preserve, although empty their cylindrical 
form. They possess three coats, viz.: 1st. Internal, or endothelial; 2d. 
Fibrous, or circular. 3d. The external. The two inner coats are very 
easily separated from the external one, as is done in the ordinary opera¬ 
tion of tying a ligature on an artery. If a fine string be tied forcibly 
upon an artery, either before or soon after death, and then be taken off, 
the external coat will be found uninjured, but the internal coats are 
divided in the track of the ligature, and can be easily dissected from the 
outer coat. The inner coat can be separated from the middle by a little 
maceration, or rubbing between the fingers. 

The arteries, in their distribution throughout the body, are included 
in a thin areolo-fibrous investment, which forms what is called their 
sheath. In the limbs, it is usually formed by a prolongation of the 
deep fascia, in the upper part of the abdomen, in the neck, of a pro¬ 
longation of the deep cervical fascia. The included vessel is loosely con¬ 
nected with its sheath by a delicate areolar tissue, and the sheath usually 
encloses the accompanying veins, and sometimes a nerve. Some arteries, 
as those in the skull and brain, are not included in sheaths. All large 
arteries are supplied with blood-vessels like all other organs of the body. 

These nutrient vessels arise from a branch of the artery or from a 
neighboring vessel, at some considerable distance from the point at 
which they are distributed. They ramify in the loose external and mid¬ 
dle coats; according to Arnold and others, supply also the internal coat. 
Minute veins serve to return the blood from these vessels; they empty 
themselves into the accompanying veins. 


70 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


The veins are the vessels which serve to return the blood from the 
capillaries of the different parts of the body to the heart. They consist 
of two distinct sets of vessels viz : the pulmonary and systemic veins. 

The veins, like the arteries, {ire found in nearly every tissue of the 
body. They commence by minute plexuses which communicate with 
capillaries. The branches which have their commencement in these 
jdexuses unite together into trunks, and these in their passage towards 
the heart constantly increase in size as they receive branches, and join 
other veins similar in size to themselves. The veins are larger and alto¬ 
gether more numerous than the arteries ; hence the entire capacity of 
the venous system is much greater than that of the arterial. The pul 
monary veins are exceptions, for they do not exceed in capacity the pul¬ 
monary arteries. From the combined capacity of the smaller venous 
branches being greater than the main trunks, it results that the venous 
system represents a cone, the summit of which corresponds to the heart, 
its base to the circumference of the body. In form the veins are not 
perfectly cylindrical like the arteries, their walls being collapsed when 
empty and the uniformity of their surface being interrupted at intervals 
by slight contractions, which indicate the position of the valves, in the 
interior of the veins. They usually preserve, however, the same caliber 
as long as they receive no branches. 

The veins communicate very freely with one another, especially in 
certain regions of the body, and this communication exists betAveen the 
larger trunks as well as between the smaller branches. Thus in the 
cavity of the cranium and between the veins of the neck, where obstruc- 
tion would be attended with imminent danger to the cerebral venous 
system, we find that the sinuses and larger veins have large and very 
frequent anastomoses. The same free communication exists between the 
A’eins throughout the whole extent of the spinal canal and between the 
veins composing the various venous plexuses in the pelvis. 

Most veins are provided Avitli valves Avhich serve to prevent the re¬ 
flux of the blood. These valves are formed by a reduplication of the 
inner and a part of the middle coat of the vein, and consist therefore 
of connective tissue and elastic fibers, covered on both surfaces by epi¬ 
thelium. Their form is semi-lunar. They are attached by their con¬ 
vex edge to the Avails of the vein ; their concave margin is free, direct 
in the course of the venous current, and lies in close opposition with 
the Avail of the vein so long as the current of blood takes its natural 
course; if, hoAvever, any regurgitation takes place, the valves become 
distended, their opposed edges are brought into contact and the cur¬ 
rent of blood is intercepted. Most commonly tAvo such valves are found 
placed opposite one another, especially in the smaller veins and in the 
larger venous trunks at the point Avliere they are joined by small 


ARTERIES AND VEINS. 


71 


branches. The wall of the vein immediately above the point of attach¬ 
ment of each segment of the valve is expanded into a pouch or sinus, 
which gives to the vessel when injected, or distended with blood a 
knotted appearance. 

The valves are very numerous in the veins of the extremities, espe¬ 
cially in the lower limbs, the vessels there having to conduct the 
blood against the force of gravity. 

These valves are absent in the very small veins, also in the venae 
cava?, the hepatic vein, portal vein and its branches, the renal, uterine 
and ovarian veins. A few valves are found in the spermatic veins and 
one also at the point of junction of the renal vein and inferior cava 
in both sexes. The cerebral and spinal veins, the veins of the cancel- 
ated tissue of bone, the pulmonary veins and the umbilical vein and its 
branches are also destitute of valves. They are occasionally found few in 
number, in the vena azygos and in the intercostal veins. 

Since the veins are not open but valved tubes the arteries are always 
selected for injection, for fluid will flow readily only in one direction in 
the veins, viz.: towards the heart, while an injection through an artery 
will flow in either direction with equal ease. Weiss’ recent anatomy 
gives a list of some 270 odd arteries, whose exact location and branches 
should be known to the skillful surgeon and anatomist, but the case is 
different with the practical embalmer. Life is too short to master all 
these minor details of the anatomy of the human body unless one can 
give his entire time to i,t. Nevertheless, the educated funeral director 
should have a good knowledge of the larger arteries, especially those 
usually employed for injection. The largest of all of the arteries of the 
body is 

THE AORTA, 

which we have already noticed (See page 68) as arising from the left 
ventricle of the heart in the form of an arch whose ascending portion 
begins just opposite the third costal cartilage, on the left side, and 
extends upwards as high as the upper border of the second costal carti¬ 
lage of the right side, close to the sternum, and is crossed by the pul¬ 
monary artery. (See plate VI.) 

The horizontal or transverse portion (See fig. 15.) is directed back¬ 
ward and to the left side. The descending portion of the aorta extends 
to the lower border of the fifth dorsal vertebra, where the thoracic aorta 
is usually said to begin. The thoracic, still descending, retains its name 
until it reaches the aortic opening in the diaphragm (See fig. 8), giving 
off branches on either side. Below the diaphragm the aorta is called 
the abdominal aorta, which name it keeps until at the level of the 
left side of the fourth lumbar vertebra it divides into the two common 
iliacs at a point corresponding nearly to the umbilicus. These common 


n 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


iliacs are only about two inches in length, for at that distance from their 
origin each of them again divides into two branches, viz.: the right and 
left external and internal iliac. 

The internal iliacs supply the walls and viscera of the pelvis and the 
inner side of the thigh. Each is about an inch and a half long, and at the 


Fig uk e 15. 



Diagram of the large vessels of the heart and lungs (from Wilson). 


1. Ascending aorta. 

2. Transverse portion of the arch. 

3. Thoracic or descending aorta. 

4. Arteria innominata. 

5. Right common carotid. 

6 External and internal carotids. 

7. Right subclavian artery. 

8. Axillary artery. 

9. Brachial artery. 

10. Right pneumogastric nerve. 

11. Left common carotid, 

12. Left subclavian artery. 


13. Pulmonary artery. 

14. Left pulmonary artery. 

15. Right pulmonary artery. 

16. Trachea. 

17. Right bronchus. 

18. Left bronchus. 

19,19. Pulmonary veins. 

20. Bronchial arteries. 

21, 21. Intercostal arteries ; the branches from 
the front of the aorta above and below the 
number 3 are pericardiac and oesophageal. 


upper margin of the sacro-sciatic foramen divides again into two branches, 
viz.: the anterior and posterior, which are of no especial interest to the 
embalmer. The external iliacs, however, are very important vessels for 
they are the chief arteries of the lower extremities and, by way of the 
femoral and popliteal arteries, through these iliacs arterial embalming is 
most successfully performed. The femoral artery is a direct prolongation 










THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. 


73 


of the external iliac, to which this name is given, after it passes below 
PouparFs ligament until it becomes the popliteal artery still lower. The 
femoral artery then is all that portion of the external iliac which lies 
between PouparPs ligament and the opening in the adductor magnus 
muscle. (See Plate III.) Below the opening in the muscle already 
referred to the femoral artery takes the name of the popliteal, and, lying 
convenient of access directly behind the knee joint, is sometimes used for 
purposes of injection. Below the popliteus muscle, the popliteal artery 
divides into two smaller arteries—tibial—and its further subdivisions are 
of no especial interest to the embalmer. (See Modern Embalming for 
directions to find and open the femoral and popliteal arteries.) 

Returning again to the arch of the aorta, whose upward branches we 
passed by to consider the downward distribution of the thoracic aorta and 
its branches, we may learn from figure 15 that it gives off from the arch 
two branches, to which the names of innominate and left common carotid 
have been given (4 and 11 Fig. 15). The innominate as may be seen in 
figure 15 soon divides into the right snbdavian and the rigid common 
carotid , while the left subclavian is not a bifurcation with the left com¬ 
mon carotid, but is given off separately from the arch of the aorta. The 
subclavians, as their name denotes, lie behind the collar-bone in their 
progress to the axilla, or armpit, curving over the fifth rib. After 
passing between the scaleni muscles, they descend upon the first and 
second rib into the axilla, where the vessel is now known as the axillarv 
artery (Ax. a. Plate II). It proceeds from the axilla to the bend of the 
elbow, and during this course, is generally denominated the humeral or 
brachial artery. (Plate IV.) 

Both the axillary and brachial arteries (See Plate IV.) are frequently 
used for arterial injections by certain embalmers. Full directions for 
locating and opening these arteries will be found under the head of 
Modern Embalming, as will also directions for finding the common carotid 
which, next to the femoral, is most frequently used for this purpose. It 
will be remembered that the right carotid arises from the innominate 
just behind the juncture of the collar and breast bone, while the left 
arises directly from the highest part of the arch of the aorta, consequently 
the left carotid is longer and more deeply placed in the neck, hence the 
right is more frequently employed for injections. (See page 44.) With 
the common carotid we conclude our brief review of the circulatory 
system of the body and return to speak of the 

ABDOMINAL CAVITY, 

which is the largest in the body and is, as its name implies, located 
in the abdomen, and separated from the thorax by the diaphragm, 
below which it entirely lies. For convenience it is usually divided by 


74 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


four imaginary lines into nine regions. Two lines are horizontal 
and parallel, one through the crest of the ilia, another horizon¬ 
tally from one ninth costal cartilage to the other. 4 he \eitical lines 
are drawn from the seventh costal cartilage to the middle part of 
Poupart’s ligament. (See Plate III.) The various organs, viz.: the liver, 
stomach, spleen, pancreas, intestines, bladder, etc., contained within 
these boundaries are well shown in the annexed table, taken from* 
Heath, which gives the location where each organ may be found accord¬ 
ing to the arbitrary division just mentioned. 


TABLE OF ABDOMINAL CONTENTS. 


1 . Right Hypochondriac Re¬ 
gion. 

Right lobeof liverand gall¬ 
bladder, first part of duode¬ 
num, hepatic flexure of co¬ 
lon, right supra-renal cap¬ 
sule, and part of right kid¬ 
ney. 

h. Epigastric Region. 

Stomach (center and pylo¬ 
rus), left lobe of liver, caelic 
axis, abdominal aorta, vena 
cava, semi-lunar ganglia, re- 
ceptaculum chyli, and vena 
azygos. 

7. Left Hypochondriac Re¬ 
gion. 

Stomach (cardiac e n d), 
spleen and tail of pancreas, 
splenic flexure of colon, left 
supra - renal capsule, and 
part of left kidney. 

2. Right Lumbar Region. 

Ascending colon, small in¬ 
testine, second part of duode¬ 
num. head of pancreas, right 
kidney. 

5. Umbilical Region. 

Great omentum, transverse 
colon, third portion of duo¬ 
denum, body of pancreas. 

S. Left Lumbar region. 

Descending colon, small in¬ 
testine, left kidney. 

3. Right Iliac Region. 

Caecum 90 b, ureter, sper¬ 
matic vessels. 

6. Hypogastric Region. 

Small intestines, apex of 
bladder in distension and in 
children. Pregnant uterus. 

9. Left Iliac Region. 

Sigmoid colon, ureter, sper¬ 
matic vessels. 


Beginning with the first, or the right hypochondriac region, we find 
the liver, directly beneath the diaphragm in whose concavity it lies almost 
entirely protected by the overhanging ribs, past which it extends to the 
center of the body, or a little beyond. The left lobe of the liver is con¬ 
siderably smaller than the right, and extends still further to the left, 
partly covering the stomach. The liver, as may be seen in cut 18, is a 
large, irregularly flattened brownish-red organ, held nearly horizontally 
in its place by a fold of the peritoneum, and possesses five lobes and 
five fissures. Its upper surface is convex to accurately fit the concavity 
of the diaphragm, and its lower surface is thicker behind than before. 
Through a notch, or fissure on the posterior edge of the liver, the inferior 
vena cava ( v . c .), already described, passes on its way to the heart. 
Near this the portal vein, which as may be seen in cut 18, contain¬ 
ing the venous blood coming from the intestines, enters the liver and 
divides into branches which spread themselves through its substance. 
In the same fissure there can also be found an artery (the hepatic) coming 
directly from the aorta. If the branches of this artery and the portal 
vein are followed into the liver, they will be found to branch and subdi- 



















THE LIVER. 


75 


Figure 16. 



©V 


Fig. 16.—Diagram of the circulation in the 
lobules of the liver (after Kiernan.) 

a, a. Intralobular veins, b, b. Interlob¬ 
ular veins. 


vide until they end in capillaries which hold in their meshes what are 
known as the lobules of the liver. These are not, as might be inferred 
from the annexed cut, flat disks, but polygonal masses, seated upon 

branches of the hepatic vein, into 
which branches the capillaries of the 
lobules empty by a minute veinlet, 
called the intra-lobular ( a , a), trav¬ 
ersing its center. Thus the venous 
blood of the portal vein and the arte¬ 
rial blood of the hepatic artery reach 
the surfaces of the lobules by the 
minute branches of that vein and 
artery, are mixed together in the 
capillaries of each lobule, and are € 
thence carried off by its intralobular 
veinlet which pours its contents into 
one of the ramifications of the he¬ 
patic vein. These ramifications, 
joining together, form large and 
larger trunks, which at last reach 
the rear margin of the liver and open 
into the vena cava inferior, where 
it passes upward in contact with that organ. Thus it comes to pass that 
the liver is one of the most vascular organs of the body, being freely sup¬ 
plied with both venous and arterial blood, the arterial being brought 
there by the hepatic artery directly from the aorta, and the venous blood 
coming from the portal vein which is made up of veins coming from the 
stomach, pancreas, spleen and intestines. (See Fig. 18.) 

From its intimate relation with the aorta, as may be seen from the 
same plate, the vessels of the liver may be easily reached by arterial 
injections. Hence when these are properly made, the liver is among the 
best preserved of the viscera, unless badly diseased before death. 

The liver is one of the most vascular organs of the body, and has 
evidently some function to perform in connection with the blood ; exactly 
how much is done by it for the economy we do not know, except that in 
the liver the blood is in some manner purified, and that during this pro¬ 
cess the bile is formed which plays no unimportant part in digestion. 
(See Chemistry of the Human body.) The bile is secreted by the bile cells 
which occupy the meshes of the capillaries of the liver, and after being- 
secreted by them drains into the interstices, or bile ducts, as they are 
called, which communicate with a main biliary duct, down which the 
bile passes to the intestine, where it helps to digest fat, etc. When 
digestion is not going on the opening from the biliary duct into the 


* 





76 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


intestine closes and the bile flows back and fills the gall bladder about 
the extremity of the cartilage of the tenth rib. (See Plate II, g. b.) 

THE STOMACH 

lies next to the liver, whose lobes partly cover its lesser curvature or 
pyloric end, as it is called. (See Plate II and Fig. 18.) Its shape is that 
of an irregular bag with two openings, viz: the pyloric, which opens into 
the intestines, and the cardiac, which is the entrance through which the 
food descending from the mouth passes. The stomach may become so 
distended as to occupy a large portion of the abdominal cavity, for 
its size depends upon the habits of its owner. Ordinarily it holds 
about two quarts, and occupies the left hypochondriac region. It 
hangs suspended in the abdominal cavity, being held in place by the 
oesophagus and by attachments to the diaphragm and liver. The stomach 


Figure 17. 


has four coats, and on opening these we find the 
inner, or mucous membrane, lining the wall of 
the stomach, lying in folds or rugae. It is very 
delicate, and multitudes of small, simple glands 
open upon its surface. Among these are others 
which possess a somewhat more complicated 
structure, their blind ends being subdivided. 
These are the peptic glands (See Fig. 17.), whose 
function is, when food passes into the stomach, 
to throw out a thin acid fluid, called the gastric 
juice. (See Chemistry of the Body, for it is 
impossible in the present section to intelligently 
discuss the subject of digestion further than to 
say that the purpose of the gastric juice is to 
render insoluble food possible of solution and 
subsequent assimilation.) 

By continued agitation with the gastric juice 
the food becomes converted into a fluid about 
the consistence of pea soup, which is called 
chyme, and which the pylorus now allows to 
pass into the intestines without such objection 
as it makes if the food still remains lumpy. 
In the duodenum, or upper portion of the 
intestine, much of this chyme is directlv ab- 
sorbed (See Lacteals), and the remainder, still 
further acted upon by the intestinal fluids, is 
digested as far as possible and the residue 
ejected from the body as feces. 

After death this partially digested food and fermentable refuse under- 



Peptic g lands. 

A, Under a low power; d, 
duct; n, neck ; B, part of the 
fundus of a g land tube under 
a high power; p, parietal 
cells; c, chief cells. 












LIVER AND SPLEEN. 


77 



Figure 18. 


goes putrefaction more rapidly than any other of the contents of the 
body and being, as it were, in a tube open at both ends, thus gives 
rise to the formation of gas and purging from mouth and anus 
so annoying to the funeral director. This can always be remedied by 

emptying the intes¬ 
tinal canal of its gases 
and filling its cav¬ 
ities with antiseptic 
fluids to prevent fur¬ 
ther decomposition, 
but it is a mistaken 
idea that you can in¬ 
ject the cavity of the 
stomach by simply 
pushing the trocar 
anywhere into the ab¬ 
domen and injecting 
fluid into it. The 
correct place for the 
insertion of the hol¬ 
low needle for this 


Branches of the coeliac axis (from Wilson). 


9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 
17. 


Liver. 

Its transverse fissure. 
Gall-bladder. 

Stomach. 

(Esophagus. 

Pylorus. 

Duodenum,descending por¬ 
tion. 

Transverse portion of the 
duodenum 
Pancreas. 

Spleen. 

Abdominal aorta. 

Coeliac axis. 

Gastric-artery. 

Hepatic artery. 

Its pyloric branch. 
Gastro-duodenalis. 
Gastro-epiploica dextra. 


18. Pancreatico-duodenalis, in¬ 

osculating with the inferior 
pancreatico-duodenalis. 

19. Division of the hepatic artery 

into right and left branches; 
the right giving off the cys¬ 
tic branch. 

20. Splenic artery, traced by 

dotted lines behind the 
Stomach to the spleen. 

21. Gastro-epiploica sinistra. 

22. Pancreatica magna. 

23. Vasa brevia to the great end 

of the stomach. 

24. Superior mesenteric artery, 

emerging from between the 
pancreas and transverse 
portion of the duodenum. 


of the stomach and there are other arteries that 


purpose is shown at 
iv« plate 1. This is 
often unnecessary. 
The gastric artery 
supplies the stomach 
with blood in life as 
it does fluid in after 
death, and arterial in¬ 
jection through this 
is generally sufficient 
to destroy the ordi¬ 
nary amount of gases 
accumulating there 
without injecting di¬ 
rectly into the cavity 
supply the stomach 


in addition to the gastric. 


THE SPLEEN 


As may be seen by the above cut, lies somewhat below and to 
the left of the stomach. It lies just below the diaphram which separates 
it from the ninth, tenth and eleventh ribs of the left side. See plate II. 






78 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


It is somewhat oval in shape, concave toward the cardiac end of the 
stomach which it embraces, and convex and smooth upon its external 
surface. Its weight is from four to eight ounces, and it is freely sup¬ 
plied with blood vessels amply sufficient to preserve it by means of 
arterial injection. In fact the organ undoubtedly performs an important 
part in the manufacture of the red blood corpuscles, and here, perhaps, 
would be as favorable a point as any to speak of 

THE BLOOD. 


Figure 10. 




A single drop of blood beneath the microscope shows that it is not 
the simple crimson fluid that it appears to the unaided sight, but a col¬ 
orless fluid in which float a multitude of small bodies, to which the name 
of blood corpuscles has been given. These are of several kinds, 

namely, the red and the white corpus¬ 
cles and what are known as elementary 
corpuscles, or as the latter are more 
generally known blood plaques, or 
blood plates (Bizzozero). These last 
have only been recently recognized as 
anything more than granular debris 
circulating in the blood. Within the 
last few months, however, they have 
been accurately described and care¬ 
fully studied by Prof. Wm. Osier, of 
Philadelphia, and Mr. Geo. T. Kemp, 
of Johns Hopkins University. Dr. 
Osier gives their size as from one-sixth 
to one-half that of a red corpuscle, 
which is sufficiently accurate for ele¬ 
ments showing such variations in size. 
Sometimes, however, a plaque may be 
•"ound which measures as much as 5 
mm. It is a circular disc, with a 
smooth, well-defined margin, and occasionally some are found which 
r, how a bilateral depression. “It is a homogeneous, smooth, structure¬ 
less protoplasm of a light gray color, and in the unaltered state no nu¬ 
cleus can be foundAs to whether a nucleus is found after staining 
there is considerable dispute. After the blood has been withdrawn from 
the vessels two peculiarities of the placques occasion a serious hindrance 
to their recognition as special elements of the blood, viz.: the rapidity 
with which the protoplasm alters and their tendency to adhere to one 
another and to substances with which they come in contact. So long as 
they are kept in the vessels they do not seem to change more rapidly 


Corpuscles of human blood. 

Magnified about 600 diameters. 

A. Red corpuscles: a, a corpuscle seen 
edgeways; b. a corpuscle in an altered 
state, arising from pressure. A small 
spheroidal red corpuscle, such as may 
be frequently met with in the blood, 
is represented beside the larger dis- 
coidal ones. 

B. Colorless corpuscles: a, a colorless cor¬ 

puscle acted upon by diluted acetic 
acid, showing its nucleus. 


i 


BLOOI) CORPUSCLES. 


79 


Figure 20. 


than the corpuscles, as Osier has found them unaltered in the pial ves- 
sles of man some hours after death; and well preserved plaques may be 
found inclosed in fibrin taken from the body several hours after death. 

The origin of these blood plaques is still a matter of 
dispute, for they are variously regarded as young red blood 
corpuscles, as derived from the red corpuscles; as derived 
from the white corpuscles; as nuclei floating free in the 
blood; as fibrin, and finally as independent elements. It 
seems scarcely worth the while to mention the evidence 
upon which these views have been founded. Suffice it to 
say that all these views have been carefully examined by 
Kemp; and sufficient evidence brought against all of these 
theories, save those which claim they are haemato-blasts or 
young red corpuscles, to render them most improbable. 
That they are not due to changes produced in other ele¬ 
ments after the blood is drawn is shown by pricking the 



Corpuscles of 
human blood. 


From spleen. 1. 
Blood plaq u e s, 
colorless and 
varying - a little in 
size. 2. Micro¬ 
cytes of a deep 
red color. 3. Two 
ordinary red cor¬ 
puscles. 4. A sol¬ 
id translu cent, 
lymphoid cell or 
free nucleus. 


finger under osmic acid which coagulates all of the other 


elements of the blood as they leave the blood vessel and 
still these blood plaques may be shown in the fluid. Fur¬ 
thermore, we could scarcely ask for more conclusive proof 
than that five competent observers—Bizzozero, Ladovsky, 
Hlavam, Schimmelbusch and Osier—have seen them circu¬ 
lating in the vessels of the mesentery, and in the uninjured 
vessels of the connective tissue of young rats. Kemp’s opinion is that 
there is no doubt that the plaques exist in the blood, and we have not 
yet sufficient evidence to believe them to be other than an independent 
morphological element—a view which is held by Max Schultze, Osier, 
Bizzozero, Laker, Ladovsky, ITalla and Schimmelbusch. 

But it must be acknowledged that theory of Hayem, that the plaques 
are luemato-blasts, is strongly supported. He believes that the red discs 
are nucleated, and in an article in the “Archives de Physiologie ” three 
vears ago, he asserted with confidence that the plaques are bi-concave. 
Laker agrees with Hayem on this point, but Bizzozero and Schimmel¬ 
busch assert that they only become bi-concave when drawn into a salt 
solution, or Hyem’s fluid. Kemp, however, asserts that in addition to 
seeing them on edge and making out their characteristic dumb-bell 
shape, he has succeeded several times in seeing them roll over in a very 
slow current, so that at least in osmic acid and Ilayem’s solution he was 
able to convince himself beyond all question of their bi-concavity. The 
bi-concavity is also shown in a photograph made from a specimen stained 
with Bismarck brown, hence it may be fairly admitted that in all proba¬ 
bility these blood plaques are incipient red blood corpuscles, though we 
have much yet to learn in regard to their place of origin and methods of 


80 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


development. The reel corpuscles, although so named are not really red, 
except in mass, for as seen under the microscope they have only a pale 
amber, or straw tint. They are flattened circular discs, so small that 
32,000 must be laid side by side to measure an inch across, and accord¬ 
ing to Huxley, 10,000,000 will lie on a space an inch square. The broad 
faces of the discs are not flat but somewhat concave, and hence their 
shape has been sometimes compared to a heavy muffin, or one whose top 
and bottom have been pushed in towards one another. Hence, the cor¬ 
puscles are thinner in the middle than at the edges and when viewed edge¬ 
wise look like short, thick rods. They are soft, flexible bodies, which 
alter their form according to the fluid in which they are immersed, 
swelling out when placed in water, or any fluid of less than their own 
specific gravity, and becoming wrinkled and creased when plunged into 
glycerine or any dense fluid, and moreover adapt their shape to the cali¬ 
ber of the blood vessel through which they are passing. (Fig. 19.) 

In the center of all the red corpuscles there is a dark spot, which is 
elliptical in shape. These spots or nuclei, when viewed in the light in a 
particular situation, reflect it, and present the appearance of holes, which 
at one time induced the belief, that the particles were annular in form. 
Recent microscopical observers have satisfied themselves of the fact that 
the dark spot in the center is owing to the presence of a solid nucleus in 
each particle. These corpuscles give a clear red solution with water and 
are bleached by dilute muriatic acid, expanded by carbonic acid and 
flattened by oxygen gas. No less remarkable are the white corpuscles 
(See figure 19.) which are now generally supposed to be the same as those 
found in pus, or matter discharging from a wound. Under a microscope 
these colorless or white corpuscles are seen to be larger than the red 
(1-2500 inch), and differ also from the red in their irregularity of 
form which is constantly changing. Careful watching of a colorless 
corpuscle shows that every part of its surface is undergoing active con¬ 
traction or dilation, apparently both living and active. When killed by 
dilute acid they are shown to be spheroidal sacks, or bags with very thin 
walls, containing fluid and a nucleus. “The red corpuscles” says Hux¬ 
ley “are in some way or another derived from the colorless ones, but the 
steps in the process have not been made out with certainty. There is 
very great reason, however, for believing that the red corpuscle is simply 
the nucleus of the white corpuscle.” Probably the third corpuscle of 
Bizzozero supplies the intermediate step. But it must be remembered 
that these corpuscles are not the only part of the blood. They are solid 
or semi-solid, and the blood is liquid. So there must be a still larger 
proportion of fluid to make it the bright red liquid so well known to all. 
This fluid part is known as the liquor sanguinis or Mood serum, as it is 
frequently called, although the former is the'better name. It is almost 


THE BLOOD. 


81 


transparent, very lighly tinged with a greenish yellow color ; except when 
impregnated with a portion of bile, which colors it bright yellow. . 

It contains a large quantity of albumen, or matter like the white of 
an egg. If heated to 140 degrees Fahrenheit, it becomes opaque ; and 
when the heat is increased to 150 or 160 degrees it is firmly coagulated. 
It is also coagulated by alcohol, by mineral acids, and sometimes by ren¬ 
net. It is proved by chemists that it contains a small quantity of pure 
soda, also common salt and soluble phosphates. (See Chemistry of the 
Human Body.) 

In every 100 parts of blood, there are 79 parts of water and 21 of 
solids, which can be approximately separated by coagulation , or clotting 
of the blood, for the blood of a healthy person shows a tendency 
to coagulate very soon after it is discharged from the vessels which con¬ 
tain it, although it remains perfectly fluid in them. If allowed to remain 
at rest, after it is drawn from the vessels, it soon clots into a solid mass of 
a soft texture. From this solid mass a fluid is soon observed to issue, 
which appears in small drops on almost every part of the surface. These 
drops quickly increase and run together, and in a short time the fluid 
surrounds the solid mass, and exceeds it in quantity. 

The solid part which thus appears upon the spontaneous separation 
of the blood, is denominated “ crassamentum ” or “cruor.” The fluid 
part is called “ serum.” 

The corpuscles which contain the red color of the blood remain with 
the “'crassamentum.'” The “serum” when it separates without agita¬ 
tion is free from the red color. The coloring matter may be completely 
separated from the crassamentum by washing it with water. (See 
Haematin, etc, Chemistry of the Human Body.) 

Coagulated blood, therefore, may be divided into three parts, namely: 
the “serum,” the corpuscles and fibrine, the substance which holds 
them together in the clot. 

Fibrine was once supposed to be dissolved in the liquid sanguinis 
because it can be obtained in fine entangled threads, by whipping fresh 
blood with small twigs upon which the fibrine will form during the pro¬ 
cess. Long and careful washing of a blood clot, too, will leave only its 
fibrine behind, as this is perfectly insoluble after it has once coagulated. 
In this state it appears to have all the chemical properties of the fibrous 
matter of muscular flesh. It also resembles the gluten of vegetables, 
being soft and elastic; the name fibrine is generally applied to it. 

If fibrine is washed and dried, its weight is very small indeed when 
compared with that of the blood from which it has been obtained. It is, 
also, proven that the spontaneous coagulation of the blood, which appears 
to depend principally upon fibrine, may be prevented by the addition of 
various foreign substances to the blood, when it is drawn, so that coagu- 
6 


82 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


lation of the blood is undoubtedly a physico-chemical reaction which will 
be discussed more at length under its appropriate section of the chemis¬ 
try of the body. Here it will be sufficient to note that the formation of 
fibrine is probably due to the reaction of two substances, globulin and 
fibrinogen—which see—contained in the blood. 

In the majority of dead bodies the blood is found* more or less 
coagulated in the veins, but in some it is found uncoagulated. It is 
asserted that it does not coagulate where death is the result of drowning, 
suffocation, lightning, asphyxia, or under other circumstances which 
will be discussed more at length under the head of putrefaction. 

THE LYMPHATICS. 

Returning again to the abdominal cavity we shall find it mainly 
occupied by the intestines, as the convoluted alimentary canal is here 
named. (See Plate II.) These are usually spoken of as the large and 
small intestines, the former extending from the anus to the ileo-caecal 
valve and the smaller from that point to the pyloric orifice of the stomach. 
The large intestine is not so called from its length, but from its relative 
larger caliber. The smaller intestine measures about 20 feet, and in this 
much of the digestion and absorption of food takes place, for it should 
be remembered that the body possesses in addition to its system of blood 
vessels another to which the name absorbent has been given. It is com¬ 
posed of lymphatics and lacteals. The lymphatics are the general 
absorbents of the body and the lacteals are those whose special function 
is to take up from the inner coats of the intestines, chyle or properly 
digested food. (See Chemistry of the Body.) The lacteals and lymphatics 
are, however, exactly alike in structure and unite to form common trunks 
which finally empty into the vena cava through the thoracic duct. The 
fluid circulating through the lymphatics, except in the lacteals already 
described, is so nearly like water that they derive their name from lymph a 
water (Gray). These lymphatics are exceedingly delicate vessels, whose 
coats are so transparent the fluid they contain can be readily seen through 
them; they are very widely distributed throughout the body, originating 
from the surfaces of all its cavities and all other structures, except 
brain substance, the spinal cord, cartilage, tendons, nails and hairs. 
They constitute, like the veins, an immense system, and, like the veins, 
the lymphatics are provided abundantly with valves. 

Here the analogy ceases between the two systems of vessels, for the 
absorbents differ from the veins, in having their courses interrupted 
from time to time, by lymphatic glands, by the mode in which they run— 
not uniting successively into branches and into trunks like the veins, 
but each running as it were an independent course from its origin 
to near its termination, and not enlarging much in diameter, though 


THE LYMPHATICS. 


83 


they anastomose frequently with each other. The fluid which circulates 
in the veins, is yet, though in a diminished degree, under the influence 
of the heart; the fluid of the absorbent vessels, appears to be exclusively 
under the influence of the walls of the vessels themselves The origin 
of the veins has been clearly shown by the microscope^ to be from the 
arteries through the intervention of the capillary vessels; whilst the 
origin of the absorbents though yet involved in much obscurity, on 
account of their tenuity, and the transparency of the fluids, which 
they carry, is believed to be wholly different. The absorbents which 
originate in the lower extremities and the cavity of the abdomen, unite 
and form a large trunk called the thoracic duct, which proceeds through 
the thorax, and terminates in the left subclavian vein at its junction 
with the internal jugular. 

The absorbent vessels are composed of two coats, which are thin, but 
dense and firm, and also elastic. The coats of the thoracic duct may be 
separated from each other. 

The absorbent vessels also contract, as they have been observed to 
propel their contents with considerable rapidity, by their own contrac¬ 
tion, independent of pressure, or of motion communicated by any other 
body. Where the different trunks of the absorbents open into the veins, 
there are one or two valves to prevent the regurgitation of blood into 
them. The valves of course prevent the injection of these vessels from 
their trunks. In some animals the valves have sometimes been ruptured, 
or forced back; and the absorbents have been injected in a retrograde 
direction, and it is stated by Dr. Soemmering, that when mercury is 
forced backwards in the absorbent vessels of the foot and the heart, it 
has sometime escaped from the surface of these parts. 

The lymphatic glands , sometimes called the conglobate glands, are 
small solid bodies situated along the track of the lymphatics, which pass 
through their gland substance. Those located in the neck and groin are 
best known, for the lymphatic glands of these parts are very prone to 
enlargement and the formation of abscesses (which see). In size the 
lymphatic glands vary from that of a small pea to an almond and their 
color is' usually pinkish gray. They are enveloped in a fibrous capsule 
which penetrates the interior dividing it up into segments not unlike 
those of an orange. Their function is not yet fully understood, but 
apparently they act as filters for the lymph which passes slowly through 
their meshes and probably leaves its foreign bodies behind in the glands. 
(See lungs page 64.) 

The body also possesses another and more important pair of filters 
known as 

THE KIDNEYS. 

These lie on either side of the backbone and are supplied with blood 


84 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


by the renal arteries, both of which are given off from the abdominal 
aorta, hence these organs can be thoroughly reached by arterial injection. 
Their function is to filter away from the blood the sewerage of the body, 
the urine, which is carried from each by means of a narrow tube called the 
ureter, which empties into the bladder (Plate Il-bl.). Into this the urine 
dribbl.es drop by drop until enough accumulates there to produce sufficient 
distension of the bladder to cause its evacuation. The amount of urine 
thus voided in a day depends upon the amount of fluids taken, the tem- 
jierature and the amount of liquid matter passing otherwise from the 
body, but the average quantity is 24,000 grains, or about three pints. 
For the composition of urine we refer the reader to the section on the 
chemistry of the human body, where its discussion properly belongs. 
Neither have we space to treat of the histology of the kidneys, for so ex¬ 
quisitely are they constructed that it would require several pages to de¬ 
scribe their various parts. It should be remembered that the kidneys 
are not located as low down in the back as is popularly believed. They 
lie in the back part of the abdominal cavity behind the peritoneum, ex¬ 
tending from the eleventh rib to near the crest of the hip bones and are 
about four inches long and two inches broad. In post mortem examina¬ 
tions they can be most conveniently reached by opening the abdomen, 
but in surgical operations they are more safely approached from the back 
as in this way the operator avoids wounding the j^eritoneum. This 

PERITONEUM 

is a curious, fibrous sack in whose folds are held most of the abdominal 
organs. From its proneness to inflammation, opening the peritoneum has 
always been considered one of the most dangerous of surgical operations, 
but under proper precautions it has been found that this can now be done 
with comparative safety, and the organs lying within it are now operated 
upon with the happiest results. These organs are the liver, stomach, 
spleen, first portion of the duodenum, and small intestines; the transverse 
colon, sigmoid flexure, upper part of the rectum, uterus and ovaries, all 
of which are almost entirely invested by it. The lower part of the rectum, 
the neck, base, and the whole front of the bladder, as well as most of the 
vagina, have nq peritoneal covering. The folds and convolutions of the 
peritoneum are so many and complicated that it would be a tedious task 
to enumerate them, the more so that they have no especial interest to 
the readers of this work, except that a peritoneal inflammation is almost 
certainly fatal, and when occuring after childbirth leaves the body more 
prone to rapid decomposition than almost any other cause of death. 
For the same reason extra care should be given the body after death from 
any disease of the 

GENITO-URINARY ORGANS. 

These comprise the kidneys, ureters, bladder and sexual organs. The 


GENITAL ORGANS 


85 


former have been sufficiently described and but brief space can be allotted 
the remainder. The external genitals are well known as to location and 
their tendency to early putrefaction, but it is not so generally known that 
the womb, virgin or impregnated, resists putrefaction to a remarkable 
degree.—(See Putrefaction). 

THE WOMB AND OVARIES, 

lie in the pelvic region behind and above the bladder. 

Attached to the womb on either side, right and left, are the Fallopian 
tubes and ovaries in which the ovum, or human egg, is formed and thence 
passes down a Fallopian tube until it reaches the cavity of the womb 
with which the tube communicates. Each ovary is about an inch and a 
half long and a third of an inch thick anti in shape is not unlike a large 
almond. The Fallopian tubes are two in number, one on each side of 
the uterus and are about four inches in length and contain a canal 
within them, opening into the uterus not larger than a fine bristle. 

These organs give little trouble except in cases of pregnancy, cancer, or 
ovarian tumors, (which see.) “ We have no positive evidence that when 
we inject the arteries of the subject, the unborn child also receives the 
injection, hence it is recommended to use the trocar and puncture the 
womb from the lower part of the abdomen, or at the highest point. It 
may be well while the trocar is in, and before you inject, to turn the 
body on its side to allow water if any exists, to pass off, after which 
inject as much fluid as the womb will hold.'’—Renouard. 

THE MALE ORGANS. 

“The most essential organs in the male system are two glandular 
bodies called testes which are placed, after birth, outside of the body, 
in an external envelope, called the scrotum, hanging from the pubic bone. 
The use of these organs is to produce the male principle or semen, as 
the ovaries produce the female ova or egg. The testes, like the ovaries, 
are not capable of performing their proper functions, till a certain per¬ 
iod of life called puberty, but unlike them, they are not liable to lose 
their powers at any particular age, but may preserve them indefinitely. 
In the early stages of existence in the womb, the testes are contained in 
the abdomen and only descend to the scrotum just before birth. 

On dissecting one of the testicles, it is found to be chiefly composed 
of blood-vessels, and numerous small tubes containing semen. A 
branch of the spermatic artery is sent from the abdomen down to each 
testis, in which it divides and subdivides into thousands of little 
branches, many of which are too small to be seen by the naked eye. It 
is this artery that brings to the testes the pure blood from which, proba¬ 
bly, the semen is formed. The capillaries of the minute arterial 
branches are apparently continuous with the commencement of the semi- 


80 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


nal tubes, so that in examining them we gradually lose sight of the 
blood and begin to find semen. 

The seminal tubes are at first exceedingly minute, but very numer¬ 
ous, and they gradually unite together to form larger branches and 
trunks, till eventually the whole form but one tube, called the vas def¬ 
erens, by which the semen is conveyed to the urethra. The number of 
these little tubes has been estimated at over sixty thousand in one tes¬ 
ticle, and it has been shown that if they were put in a straight line, 
they would measure many hundreds, if not thousands, of feet. There 
is also a branch of the spermatic vein connected with each testis, which 
ramifies in its substance similarly to the artery. This vein is to take 
away impure and refuse blood*when no longer needed. The testicles are 
mainly composed of three kinds of tubes or vessels, namely, arteries, 
veins, and seminal tubes. In addition to which there are also numerous 
nerves and lymphatics, or absorbents, the whole being connected together 
by cellular tissue. Each testis is connected with the body by the sper¬ 
matic cord, which is a kind of sheath, or tube, about half an inch in 
diameter containing the main branches of the artery, nerves and lym¬ 
phatics, going to the testis with the main branch of the vein and the 
vas deferens, coming from it. This spermatic cord ascends into the abdo¬ 
men where the different vessels composing it are distributed to their 
respective places. Each testis is also surrounded by a distinct coat or 
tunic, beside the scrotum, in which both are inclosed. 

The manner in which the semen is actually made is, of course, un¬ 
known to us; we can only point out the place where it originates, and 
explain its progress toward the exterior of the body. 

The vas deferens from each testis, into which all its seminal tubes has 
poured their contents, ascends into the abdomen through the spermatic 
cord and rises nearly as high as the top of the bladder, behind which it 
turns and then begins to descend till it meets over its lower part with 
two small organs called the seminal vesicles, with which it becomes con¬ 
nected. From the seminal vesicles the semen passes down the ejacula¬ 
tory canal, which is attached to the bladder, and which joins the pros¬ 
tate gland ; finally, by means of some curious opening through the pros¬ 
tate gland, the seminal fluid is passed into the urethra, by which the 
urine escapes from the bladder, and is ejected from the body. 

These several parts comprise the male generative system, and 
in the act of impregnation each one has a special function to perform. 
The testes secrete the semen, the vas deferens and ejaculatory canal con¬ 
vey it to the urethra, and the penis deposits it in the female organs, 
while the seminal vesicles and prostate gland either secrete some neces¬ 
sary addition or effect some modification in it. 

The vivifying principle secreted by the male testis is a yellowish- 


87 


BONE AND MUSCLES. 


white semi-fluid substance, having a peculiar odor. It is % slightly viscid 
and of a saltish flavor when fresh. On examination it is found to con¬ 
sist of two distinct parts, one nearly fluid and the other like globules of 
half-dissolved starch, which, however, both melt together when it is 
exposed some time to the air. The peculiar odor of the semen appears 
to be derived from some of the parts through which it passes, for, when 
taken from the testes, it has scarcely any smell at all. 


BONES, MUSCLES, ETC. 


Having thus briefly taken up in turn the more important organs of 
the body, there only remains, to complete its description, mention of 
the packing and wrappings in which the organs are placed. These 
may be briefly enumerated as bony, cartilaginous, muscular, cellular, 
adipose and integumentary, including under the latter the hair and nails. 
The bony parts of the body we call its skeleton, a framework made up of 
204 separate parts. The bones of an average adult weigh 24 pounds and 
consist of two kinds of tissue, inorganic and organic, meaning by the 
first the earthy or more solid part of the bones, and by the latter the 
gelatinous material found in them. These stand to each other in about 
the proportion of G6 inorganic to 33 parts of organic material in the 
hundred, the former of which is practically indestructible for very many 
years under ordinary circumstances; so much so we are very apt to 
think that the bones are constructed entirely of these solid parts, but if 
we examine a fresh bone carefully we shall find it wrapped in a tough 
fibrous membrane (periosteum) which can only be removed from it with 
considerable difficulty. If now we examine the bone from which this 


periosteum has recently 
been stripped we shall 
find on its surface a num¬ 
ber of minute reddish 
points which represent 
the places where blood¬ 
vessels pass from this 
fibrous covering into the 
bone substance. Nor do 
they terminate near the 


Figube 22. 



surface, but pass through 
its entire substance, di¬ 
viding and subdividing 
in every direction, as may 
be seen by the annexed 


Bone Substance. 


, „ ) 



This fibrous covering, the cartilage and vessels, compose the thirty- 
three per cent, or the organic part of the bone, and are so fully protected 








88 


ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. 


from the action of the atmosphere that they are among the last to 
undergo change, drying down into an elastic gelatinous mass like isin¬ 
glass. So persistent is this under favorable circumstances that there is a 
creditable story of a dinner party given by Dean Buckland at which a 
soup was served made from the gelatin obtained from the bones of fossil 
animals who had died many hundred years before his day. (See gelatin.) 
The duties of the bones are both to serve as protection to the soft parts 
and to act as fulcra and levers in doing the body’s work. A compre¬ 
hensive course in physics might be gotten out of an exhaustive study of 
the shape of the various bones of the body, but this is not the place for 
it. All that the subject of human osteology can here claim is a reference 
to the fact that the form of bone depends upon the duties laid upon it, 
viz.: ivory, or eburnated bone, as it is called, is found wherever strength 
and support alone are needed, hence we find the shafts of the long bones 
are of this ivory-like structure, while their extremities are latticed, or 
cancellated, which kind of bone is found wherever it is desirable to have 
large surface with as little weight as possible. 

Under the microscope, however, there is absolutely no difference in 
the structure of these two kinds of bones except in the arrangement of 
their fibres. In the ivory bone they are compressed together and in the 
spongy bone these bony spiculae, or beams, so cross and interlace one 
another that this variety of bone is known as latticed, or cancellated 
bone. For a description of the slight chemical differences between 
cartilage and bone the reader is referred to the section on the chemistry 
of the body; here it is sufficient to remind him that cartilage constitutes 
what is familiarly known as the gristle of the body and that it only 
needs the deposition of earthy salts within it to convert it into true bone. 

The muscular •system is made up of about twice as many muscles as 
there are bones, and by a muscle is understood a mass of flesh which has 
the property, voluntarily or involuntarily, of contraction or shortening 
itself, so as to bring its two ends nearer together. This it does by short¬ 
ening in length each of the fibres of which it is composed, for muscle 
under the microscope is a highly complex substance composed of sheath, 
fibres, sarcolemma, nerves, vessels, perimysium-and ultimate disks. The 
preservation of the sixty-eight pounds of muscle in a human body is no 
unimportant part of the embalmer’s care. Under the proper surround¬ 
ings muscles may dry down into a hard mass like the jerked beef of the 
Western hunters, but ordinarily muscle breaks up into several simpler com¬ 
pounds which are too numerous to mention, for human flesh is an ex¬ 
ceedingly complex substance whose chemistry will be discussed later. 
Rigor mortis (see page 97) is the first of the marks of decomposition 
in a voluntary muscle and is due to the coagulation of a semi-fluid sub¬ 
stance by which the muscular disks are bathed during life. The muscu- 


MUSCLES AND SKIN. 


89 


lar disks, just referred to, are the minute bodies of which each muscular 
fibre is composed by their being laid one above another like a pile of 
checkers. Each one of these disks has a contractile power and this con¬ 
tractile power of each disk is what enables the muscle as a whole to con¬ 
tract and to perform its work, either by its own contractions as in the 
heart, or by moving the bony levers of the body. 

The muscular disks and fibers'' are all wrapped in delicate mem¬ 
branes, the muscles in denser ones, and finally all the organs of the body 
are held together by what is well called connective tissue, for it connects 
or binds the body together as a whole. It is so generally distributed 
throughout the body that if all else could be taken away—the connective 
tissue only left behind—there would still remain an exact cast or form of 
the body, ghost like in its tenuity. Closely examined, connective tissue 
will be found to consist of thin fibrous sheets, which are capable of being 
broken up into innumerable fine filaments, which, under proper treat¬ 
ment, will show nuclei. (For chemistry see section on Chemistry of the 
Human Body.) Ligaments, tendons and what are known as fibrous 
bands are all modifications of this same connective tissue which is the 
most widely diffused of any in the body. 

Adipose, or Fatty Tissue, differs from connective tissue only in that it 

Fat is very widely 
distributed through 
the bodv, but its 
quantity depends 
largely upon the 
state of nutrition 
of the person, for 
fat is simply re¬ 
serve nutriment to 
be drawn upon in 
case of need. No 
amount of starva¬ 
tion can, however, 
completely remove 
all fat from the 
bodv, for no mat- 
ter how emaciated, 
fat can always be 
found back of the 
eye and about the 
kidneys and heart, 
rts composition and digestion will be further discussed in the section 
on the Chemistry of the Human Body. 


contains fat deposited in its areolae, or interstices. 

Figure 23. 



Anatomy of the Skin. 

a. The epidermis, b. Two of the quadrangular papillary 
clumps composed of minute conical papillm, such as are seen in 
the palm of the hand or the sole of the loot. c. Deep layer of 
the derma, the eorium. f. Adipose cells. 














































90 


PROOFS OF DEATH. 


The integument, is the outer covering of the body. On the 
surface of the body it is known as the skin and inside of the body, 
we call it mucous membrane, but under the microscope they are almost 
identical, except in the amount of moisture they contain. The previous 
cut well shows the structure of the skin of one of the fingers, the elevations 
representing the minute ridges that may be seen on the finger tips with 
the naked eye. These contain the blood vessels and nerve terminations 
which, if exposed to the air would be a source of incessant suffering, so as 
may be seen from the cut they are covered with a thin brany layer to which 
the name of epidermis has been given. Its outer layer is dry and scaly and 
is being continually removed by friction and washing. Its lower layers 
consist of moist cells, some of which contain the pigment of the skin and 
through which the hair and sweat glands penetrate to the corium or true 
skin beneath. This true skin may be removed entire from the human body, 
as from the lower animals, and may be tanned like their hides. (See tan¬ 
nin.) In fact human skin makes a very fine leather, as was proven in a 
recent notorious trial iu Massachusetts, and all of the earlier methods of 
preserving the body relied largely upon this tanning of the skin by means 
of vegetable astringents. Modern chemistry has discovered more efficient 
agents which are no longer applied externally only, but internally as well 
through the blood vessels, but before discussing how this may best be 
done it would be well to consider 


B. The Proofs of Death. 

As it is absolutely essential that a body should be dead before it re¬ 
quires the art of the embalmer, it is equally necessary that he be able to 
decide beyond all reasonable doubt whether a body presents the proper 
proofs of death before inflicting such further injuries upon it that a re¬ 
turn to life would be impossible. One such mistake would forever blast 
a professional reputation, hence “whenever there is the least uncertainty, 
and in all sudden cases, where putrefaction does not commence as sud¬ 
denly, nothing at least ought to be done that may cause actual death, 
and the interment should be postponed until the third day, for by the 
third day changes always appear on the body, which are decisive.” 
In all doubtful cases proceedings should be arrested until these decisive 
changes make their appearance, though a week should elapse. In all 
cases of apparent death, particularly from external violence, the body 
should be treated with the greatest care, for if it is treated as the 
dead generally are, viz.: laid out on a board in a cold room, perhaps 
covered with ice, it will certainly be dead very soon if it is not so 
before. Most emphatically would we say make no attempt to embalm 



SUSPECTED DEATH. 


91 


the body by making any injection of embalming fluid until death is be¬ 
yond doubt a reality.” 

.There is not a day that passes by that some one does not die suddenly; 
many of these deaths are called heart disease, and the body is immediately 
prepared for burial. Such a course is inexcusable for it is possible that 
the so-called “ heart disease ” is merely one of suspended animation. A 
remarkable case of this kind, lasting twelve days, is related by Dr. Lukens 
in a recent number of the Casket (Feb. *86), which we quote in his own 
words: 

“ The physician in charge seeing the body immediately after supposed 
death had ensued, was impressed by a peculiar appearance of the features 
that possibl} 7 there was only suspended animation, and insisted upon 
keeping the body until dissolution became apparent. The body became 
cold and rigid; and all means for resuscitation proving fruitless, the body 
was closely watched and no signs of life were manifest. Day after day 
passed, the friends became discouraged and the neighbors only insisted 
that they were keeping a dead body in the house and it ought to and 
must be buried. The doctor plead with the friends to let the body alone 
and gained his point. Constant watch was continued, and on the twelfth 
day the servant saw the ee corpse ” turn her head to one side, but still 
apparently unconscious. After a time the head was turned to the other 
side and after a time life was fully asserted by a living, moving being 
who entirely recovered from her sickness and became a well woman. 
While lying in that state she was wholly conscious of all that was being 
done. During the time of ‘suspension 7 the doctor applied electricity 
which was the means of causing her to suffer pain and which continued 
until after she revived.” 

In all of these cases it would be much safer for the undertaker to 
wait until some of the positive signs of death are manifest before proceed¬ 
ing to embalm the body or in any way to treat it roughly. It should 
also be kept in a temperature suitable to one living. We believe that 
every person whose business is to lay out and take care of the dead should 
be thoroughly familiar with the death signs, and should make no attempt 
to operate upon, or apply any of the embalming compounds to, or place 
the body in an unfavorable temperature until he has evidence beyond a 
doubt that death is real. It is as much the duty of an undertaker, 
as of the physician in this rapidly progressive day of his profession, to be 
intelligently posted on all the signs of death for no one of them alone, 
except, perhaps, general putrefaction, is sufficient proof of death. So 
generally has this been accepted as a scientific fact, that one of the largest 
prizes of the French Academy ($4,000) has been offered “for the discovery 
of a simple and popular mode of recognizing the signs of real death in a 
certain and indubitable manner; a method which may be put into prac- 


92 


PROOFS OF DEATH. 


tice by poor, uneducated villagers. " This prize has not yet been awarded. 
The following are the signs of death taken mainly from Dr. Tidy's recent 
work on Forensic Medicine, pages 35-44. 

I. Cessation of the heart's action , not for a few seconds only but 
continuously. Mere absence of the pulse at the wrists, or even in other 
arteries, is not enough, as this may be found in cholera, abdominal col¬ 
lapse, and other kinds of shock, etc. Careful auscultation and palpita¬ 
tion of the cardiac region, in a quiet room, can alone decide the ques¬ 
tion of cardiac action. In doubtful cases it would be better to employ 
acupuncture of the left ventricle, and the stimulus of a galvanic shock 
to the cardiac region. It is well known that two sounds are caused by 
the hearths working, which have been compared to lub-dup-p, lub-dup-p, 
etc., but in cases of great weakness, only the second sound may be audi¬ 
ble—a blowing sound (bruit) possibly replacing one or both of these in 
cases of valvular disease of the heart, or great anaemia (poverty of blood). 
Dr. G. W. Balfour has pointed out that fine needles with little cork or 
paper flags placed over the heart will often render cardiac movements vis¬ 
ible where not previously so. Or the same test may be applied by a bit 
of hot sealing wax dropped on the chest and drawn out to a fine point as 
it cools. 

It is doubtful, however, if this be available in cases such as we are 
describing. It should be remembered that there is a “pulse" wherever 
an artery is superficial enough to communicate its stroke to the explor¬ 
ing finger, as in the facial, the carotids of the neck, the brachial, ulnar, 
femoral, popliteal, and anterior and posterior tibial arteries. Nega¬ 
tive evidence from stethoscopic examinations of the heart, great ves¬ 
sels or lungs, can only be considered decisive when done some hours 
after the supposed death. There are many instances on record of recov¬ 
ery of infants and young children after the heart had apparently ceased 
to beat for at least a quarter of an hour. Further proof of arrest of 
circulation may be obtained by: 

1. Ligation of the finger; if it swells beyond or on the distal side 
of the constriction, then circulation is taking place and the person is, of 
course, alive. 

2. The unaltered'brightness of a needle thrust into the body and 
allowed to remain ; and, lastly, no spurting of blood when a cut is made 
into an artery. The heart may beat so feebly that no pulsation can be 
felt over the arteries, and the sounds may be so feeble that they cannot 
be heard. The circulation mav be confined to the vital organs, and a 
needle thrust into a leg or arm would remain bright, because there is no 
circulation there; but the absence of spurting blood is positive evi¬ 
dence of cessation of circulation, especially when one of the larger arte¬ 
ries is opened. It often occurs that the pulse at the wrist cannot be 


CESSATION OF RESPIRATION. 


93 


felt if the limb be extended or everted; but if it be bent, and the band 
turned inward, it becomes perceptible. We should, therefore, perform 
this movement by which the artery is relaxed. In syncope the beats of 
the heart can almost always be heard by an experienced auscultator in a 
quiet room. Dr. Taylor recommends half an hour to be spent in auscul¬ 
tation. It would surely be better to auscultate at intervals of half an 
hour or more. The heart, and particularly its right half, seems to have 
life of its own, distinct from the great nervous centers, and continues to 
beat or contract, even when cut into fragments, for some minutes after 
its removal from the body. The presumption of death, when this last 
part of the body to die no longer gives signs of life, must, therefore, be 
very strong. The case of Col. Townsend, who could voluntarily sus¬ 
pend the action of his heart for a short time, should not be forgotten 
here. 

II. Entire Cessation of Respiration .—The act of breathing is so. 
eminently a vital one, that any long suspension of this function (See 
Drowning.) cannot but be fatal. Here again the stethoscope should be 
used, as careful auscultation is far more likely to detect the sounds caused 
by air, or air and mucus, or other fluids traversing the air-tubes, than any 
other means. /The popular, or domestic, proof of the absence of breath¬ 
ing consists in holding a mirror before the mouth of the person. If this 
becomes coated with moisture, it is supposed to indicate the presence of 
life; if the mirror is unchanged, it proves death. This test is falla¬ 
cious, and the proof of this easy. Any bright or smooth surface will 
condense the moisture in the air, or breath of a person, if it is cooler 
than the air or breath itself. Therefore, if the mirror held before a 
person's face is warmer than his breath, no film will gather upon the glass. 
Hence the use of a looking glass, to condense the moisture of the 
breath, or of a feather or other light body, to indicate the movements of 
the air, although popular, are not very satisfactory methods of ascertain¬ 
ing the continuance, or otherwise, of respiration. There is a peculiar 
mode of breathing known by the name of “ Stokes-Cheyne respiration," 
sometimes seen in cardiac and cerebral disease, rarely in fevers, in tuber¬ 
cular affections, and perhaps other maladies, which may deceive an 
incautious observer. The patient, in such cases, breathes at first so 
slightly as scarcelv to seem to breathe at all, each succeeding inspiration 
is a little deeper until a maximum is reached, and then each breath that 
follows becomes shallower and shallower, till again the patient may 
again appear not to breathe at all—then a feeble inspiration is taken, 
followed by another a little stronger, indicating the coipihencement of a 
new series like the former. 

III. Changes in and about the Eye .— These consist of (1) an 
entire loss of sensibility to light. The pupil no longer dilates with 


94 


PROOFS OF DEATH. 


a solu-tion of atropine dropped into it, as it does in life, nor does it 
contract nor dilate according to the amount of light thrown upon 
it. The best mode of applying this test is known to opthalmic sur¬ 
geons as “oblique illumination.” A bright light is placed on one 
side of the eye to be examined, and its rays brought to a focus by 
means of a double convex lens of about two inches focus, and the lens 
and light so disposed that this focus falls upon, or nearly coincides with, 
the pupillary aperture. When no change is produced, the iris remaining 
immovable, we may then usually conclude that life is extinct. Adhesions 
of long standing, belladonna or its alkaloid atropine and calabar bean 
may, however, greatly affect the mobility of the iris, as is well known. 
Alcohol and some other poisons also produce similar effects. (2.) There 
is an entire loss of sensibility to touch in the ocular conjunctivas This 
is, however, equally true of a period in epileptic fits, and in some cerebral 
injuries. (3.) The conjunctiva covering the sclerotic soon begins to 
show a gray cloudy discoloration on its external portion, which later be¬ 
comes blackish. This is quickly followed by a similar stain on the inner 
side. M. Larcher, who first pointed this out, considers the phenomena 
to be due to cadaveric imbibition, and probably dependent upon putre¬ 
factive changes. “These two spots extend and approach each other, 
forming the segment of an ellipse.” (4.) The cornea speedily loses its 
transparency, in other words the eye has lost its luster. This 
may, however, take place during life, as is repeatedly seen in 
cholera, and other diseases. (5.) The eye soon becomes sunken in 
its socket, and the globe itself becomes flaccid, so as to retain the dint or 
mark of any pressure made upon it. This loss of transparency and so- 
called film over the eye after death is due to an absence of circulation in 
its tissues, and varies according to circumstances, for the eye retains its 
brightness much longer in strong subjects than in old, weak persons, 
especially when death has resulted from apoplexy, suffocation, prussic 
and other acids. It has been observed that in severe diseases of lone* 
duration, and in some affections of the mind, that the eyes become dim 
and shrunken before death, and thus another source of fallacy 
arises. 

The opening of the eyes after death is due to the post-mortem shrink¬ 
ing of the ball of the eye, which allows the lids to open. This loss of 
tenacity, or minus tension, is, however, met with in some diseases of the 
eye. (6) Supposing the cornea to be clear enough to allow of opthal- 
moscopic examination, it is stated by M. Poncet that the yellow-red of 
the living fundus of the eye is changed at the moment of death to a yel¬ 
lowish-red, or paler hue. M. Bouchut states that beads of air or gas, in 
other words an interrupted column of blood, will be seen in the retinal 
veins resembling bubbles of air in the colored fluid of a spirit thermome- 


COOLING OF BODY. 


05 

ter, or the beaded appearance familiar to us in nerve tubes. (Pneumat¬ 
osis of retinal veins.) (7) At the same time the eyelids will have lost 
their elasticity, neither they nor the globe of the eye moving any longer. 
(8) It is said that atropine and calaber bean no longer produce the dilata¬ 
tion and contraction which are their respective property. This is quite 
true of a body dead some days, but not always true of one dead only a 
few hours. (9) Electric and mechanical stimuli equally fail to affect the 
eye of one dead some time. 

IV. Changes in the Temperature of the Body .—Gradual cooling 
or loss of heat is the most common change after death. In some 
diseases, however, the temperature of the body actually rises after 
death. This is particularly the case after yellow fever (as pointed 
out by Dr. Bennett Dowler), cholera, rheumatic fever, tetanus, and 
other injuries to the nervous system, small-pox, and some abdominal 
diseases, where a rise amounting to 9 degrees F. (or 5 degrees C.) has 
been noted after death. It is probable (as the blood is no longer cooled 
in the lungs) that there is a slight post-mortem elevation of internal 
temperature in all cases of death. Be this as it may, it is a familiar ob¬ 
servation that within a few hours after death the body cools, more or less 
rapidly according to the external temperature, the amount of clothing, 
and other accidental circumstances. In the case of Gardner, charged 
with the murder of his wife, and convicted in October, 1862, the medical 
man first called in, stated that she must have been dead at least four 
hours, as the body lying on a wooden floor, covered with only a flannel 
petticoat and a chemise, was quite cold and rigid. She had lost a large 
quantity of blood from a wound in the throat. This led to a number 
of observations on the temperature of dead bodies by Drs. Wilks and A. 
S. Taylor, who give the following table of the temperature of the body : 

• /-Hours after death.-•> 

2 to 3. 4 to G. G to 8. 12 or more. 


Maximum temperature. 94° 86° 80° 79° <26.1° C.) 

Minimum “ . 60° 62° 80° 56° (13.3° C.) 

Average “ . 77° 74* 70° 60° (20.5° C.> 


These observations were made by simply placing the bulb of a ther¬ 
mometer on the skin of the abdomen. They found internal temperature 
of 76 degrees F. seventeen and eighteen hours after death, and of 85 
degrees F. ten hours after death. Very numerous observations have been 
made on the subject by Messrs. Durand and Linas. The results of their 
experiments seems to be that from eighteen to twenty-four hours are 
required for the body, under ordinary circumstances, to cool down to the 
temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. In summer in hot days a 
temperature of 25 degrees C. (77 degrees F.) is not uncommon, whilst an 
instance is recorded of a frozen woman restored to life by warmth whose 








PROOFS OF DEATH. 


m 


temperature was only 20 degrees C. (G8 degrees F.) M. Laborde has 
stated that in five or eight hours the temperature of the deeper tissues 

in the dead body falls to 27 degrees or 28 degrees 0. (80. G to 82.4 F.) 

But Dr. F. Niderkorn (“De la Rigidite cadaverique chez Fhomme,” 
Paris, 1872,) shows that in six cases, taken indifferently six to eight hours 
after death, the rectal tenrperature averaged 32. G degrees C. (90.6 degrees 
F.), and nine cases, in twelve to fourteen hours after death, gave a rectal 
temperature of 31.8 degrees C. (89.2 degrees F.) As these observations 
have not been published in English, we subjoin a summary of his obser¬ 
vations, which are taken seriatim from 135 jiersons dying of various dis¬ 
eases. They differ from those of Drs. Wilks and Taylor by being taken 
in the axilla and at Paris: 

--Hours after death.-. 

2 to 4. 4 to 6. 6 to 8. 8 to 12.* 


Maximum temperature. 100.4? 98.2° 95.3° 100.4° F. 

Minimum temperature. 89.6° 80.6° 70.5° 62.6° F. 

Average temperature. 96.9° 90.2° 81.7° 77.9° F. 


The following seem the chief practical conclusions from these and 
other facts collected on this subject: 

1. That even in winter the human body generally takes several 
hours, certainly not less than four, and sometimes even twelve and even 
more (jNTysten says, “three days in case of asphyxia”) to cool down to 
the temperature of the surrounding air, especially if internal tempera¬ 
ture be observed. 

2. The external temperature, the amount and kind of clothing, and the 
position of the body all modify the rate of cooling. This cooling seems 
to depend upon (1) The cessation of heat production by vital or chemical 
processes; (2) Radiation; (3) Conduction and convection of cool air, cold 
ground, stones, wood, articles of bedding, and other substances upon 
which the body rests, or by which it is surrounded. 

3. Age and sex appear to modify this but little, if at all, per se, 
although the new-born foetus probably cools more rapidly than older 
infants. Fat is a non-conductor of heat and prevents rapid radiation 
from the body. An emaciated body will become cool much quicker than 
a body well covered with fat. It will take an average of twenty-four 
hours for a body to become.cool. 

4. The mode of death has far more to do with it. Large losses of 
blood are said, by Dr. B. Ward Richardson, to cause rapid cooling. This 
agrees with our own, and with common experience, but Dr. Taylor has 
shown that it is not invariably true. A man, aged forty-eight, died from 

* Bodies dying from apoplexy, snn-stroke, suffocation (especially by noxious gases), and 
fevers, retain animal heat much longer than other modes of death. The temperature of a 
body will rarely ever fall below that of the room in which it remains. Therefore in winter 
bodies cool much quicker than in summer. 









RIGOR MORTIS. 


97 


losing about four pounds of blood. Four hours after death the skin 
of his abdomen had a temperature of 84 degrees F., eight hours of 
80 degrees F., although the dead-house temperature was 38 degrees F. 
only. The conditions were favorable to rapid cooling. It is, however, 
noteworthy that he had met with an accident, necessitating ligature of 
his axillary artery. 

Observations of temperature should be taken by a thermometer and 
repeated at intervals of a few hours. It is the progressive, continuous 
cooling, not the absolute temperature, which indicate death. 

V. The limbs and joints of the body become stiff. In other words, 
post-mortem rigidity sets in at a variable time after death. This rigid¬ 
ity or stiffness is a phenomenon belonging to the voluntary muscles, 
and although much attention has been given to it, it is a subject still 
involved in much obscurity. It does not seem certain as yet that 
it is due alone to coagulation of the myosin or albuminous principles of 
muscular tissues. This body is obtained with difficulty in an uncoagu¬ 
lated state, from warm-blooded animals, and has an extraordinary ten¬ 
dency to coagulate at all temperatures above 32 degrees F. (0 degrees C.) 
The following facts on muscular rigidity appear well authenticated: 

1. The coagulation of the muscle plasma is greatly accelerated by 
heat. At 40 degrees C. (104 degrees F.) it coagulates almost instan¬ 
taneously. Cold water and fifteen per cent solution of sodium chloride 
coagulate it when dropped into them. In ten per cent acid solution it 
coagulates, but the clot is dissolved, and syntonin formed. 

2. Living muscles at rest have a double, or amphichromatic reaction 
on litmus-papers, changing the color of both blue and red. But the red is 
altered most, so that the muscular reaction may be described as alkaline. 

3. After contraction of a muscle in life, and during post-mortem 
rigidity, the reaction of the muscle is acid (reddens blue litmus-paper). 
This is particularly evident in rigor mortis. 

4. The acid rigid muscle, after death, again becomes soft, non¬ 
elastic, and alkaline, as soon as the post-mortem rigidity has passed off. 

5. The muscle in a state of rigor mortis has become opaque. (See 
No. 5, under the minor signs of death, also Chemistry of Human 
Body, for Chemistry of Rigor Mortis and order of occurrence.) 

As a rule it begins within six hours after death and lasts for twenty or 
thirty hours, though it may last for days or even three weeks in cold 
weather. 

Below 28 degrees—11 degrees C., muscular fibers pass rapidly into 
some new molecular conditions from which they do not return into 
active life by any known means of recovery (Dr. B. W. Richardson). 
Brown-Sequard has shown that a current of arterial blood restores mus¬ 
cular contractility to rigid limbs. 

7 


08 


PROOFS OF DEATH. 


Rigor mortis in children begins almost as soon as death takes place, 
and frequently last only a few hours. In strong, athletic persons it lasts 
much longer than in emaciated ones. Rigor mortis is a peculiar rigidity 
of the muscles holding a limb in a fixed joosition. It can be overcome 
by sufficient force; and by frequently bending and straightening a limb 
all its rigidity will be lost. It commences first in the muscles of the 
lower jaw, neck and trunk, and then extends to the limbs, finally reach¬ 
ing the hands and feet, and in subsiding it follows the same order. 
Death by electricity is not followed by rigor mortis. Catalepsy is a 
peculiar nervous disease in which a patient sometimes has all the appear¬ 
ance of one dead, even to the rigidity. As long as rigor mortis lasts you 
need have no fear of putrefaction, as soon as this takes place the rigidity 
leaves and the body is limp. Flexibility of the limbs succeeding rigor 
mortis is one of the most characteristic signs of death. 

VI. Several minor phenomena, or so-called “tests” for death, have 
been observed, and may conveniently he grouped here—(1) Loss of 
elasticity of the skin. The skin when pinched up in a young or 
healthy person quickly returns to its natural form. The skin of a dead 
person has lost its elasticity and will remain in folds when it is jnnched 
after the body has cooled. The fallacies of this test are these:—The skin 
of the aged loses to a great degree its elasticity, and in certain cancerous 
and other malignant diseases the skin loses it partly or entirely. 

2. If scarificators and cupping-glasses be applied to any part, e. g., 
the pit of the stomach, blood usually flows, but it will not do so after 
death, at all events not many hours, or apply the flame of a candle to 
the point of the finger, and if- a blister follows, the person is alive ; if it 
becomes parched and brown, then he is dead; unless this test is applied 
immediately after death, for a burning match, hot scalding wax, can- 
tharides, or blistering fluids, will produce vesication in young and 
healthy subjects shortly after death, but no longer than the second or 
third day. (M. Levasseur.) 

3. Bright steel needles inserted in any part of the skin will be found 
free from rust even after some hours. (M. Laborde.) This appears greatly 
dependent on the amount of cooling and moisture, and is untrustworthy. 

4. Wires attached to these needles no longer deflect a galvanometer; 
nor do they produce increase of temperature when muscles contract 
by the electrical current. In the living, when a muscle contracts the 
temperature of the skin is raised, as indicated by a delicate thermometer 
placed over it. 

5. The fingers and hands, especially in young subjects, are trans¬ 
lucent during life, but become opaque after death. In other words, if a 
bright light be placed behind the hand of a living person, in a dark 
room, it shows a pinkish-red, almost transparent appearance. 


MINOR PROOFS OF DEATH. 


99 


6. Dr. Lesenne, of Amiens, says that one can determine with cer¬ 
tainty whether a person is dead or not by thrusting a pin into the skin. 
In a cadaver the hole made by the pin will remain patent, just as if the 
pin had been stuck into a piece of leather, but if the person be alive the 
hole will immediately close, leaving scarcely a sign to show where the 
pin had entered the skin. 

7. It has been proposed to inject liquor ammoniae subcutaneously. 
In the living body, or in one only just dead, a sort of port-wine con¬ 
gestion is immediately produced. In a body recently dead, a less degree 
of this might be visible; but in one dead some hours, or days, scarcely 
any change is produced. This ammonia test is only another proof of the 
coagulability of the blood. The blood drawn from a living person will 
coagulate (clot); blood drawn from a dead person will not coagulate and 
the coloring matter will gravitate immediately after death to the lower 
portions of the body. Should the body lie upon its back, upon exami¬ 
nation it will be found that the lower portions will be of a very dark 
color, which by many has been taken as the advanced stages of putre¬ 
faction, but is simply hypostasis. Should this occur in the face of a 
corpse it can be removed by using strong bleaching solutions, such as 
saltpetre, chloral hydrate, chloride of zinc, carbolic acid, and in less 
severe cases strong vinegar has been used with good results, but the best 
means where opportunity is afforded to remove such discolorations, is to 
open both the internal and external jugular veins on each side of the 
neck and then place a cloth on the face and rub downward until the color 
lias disappeared. This often can be done without opening the veins. 
When a solution is used to bleach a corpse it should be used by saturating 
sheet cotton batting and covering the parts closely so as to exclude the 
air, care being taken not to let the solution remain too long on the face 
lest it should become too white. 

VII. Putrefaction is really the only proof that taken alone is positive. 
It begins over the abdomen and is indicated by a greenish discoloration of 
the skin, afterwards extending over the entire body and is soon evidenced 
by what is known as the “cadaveric smell/' or the peculiar odor of death, 
for a dead body has an indescribable odor peculiar to itself, which once 
recognized is never forgotten. The order and chemistry of putrefaction 
will be fully discussed under the head of Chemistry of the Body, 
which see. Whenever the peculiar discoloration of putrefaction and 
characteristic odor of decomposition appear, there need be no further 
fear of a premature burial. 

APPARENT DEATH AND PREMATURE BURIAL 

are not unfrequently predicated upon change of position of the corpse in 
the coffin, produced by gases arising from decomposition. Such contor- 


ioa 


PROOFS OF DEATH. 


tions by no means imply that the life has returned to the body after bur¬ 
ial, and such cases in my opinion are extremely rare. Nevertheless 
they do occasionally, for suspended animation has been mistaken for 
death, especially by the ignorant. 

These cases of apparent death are usually those of so-called sudden 
death, and without the “ death agony.” They closely resemble the 
hypnotic or mesmeric condition and are undoubtedly due to a suspension 
of functions of the cerebro-spinal nervous system and a carrying on of 
life by the sympathetic alone. (See page —). In these cases sensation 
is completely preserved, but all power of voluntary motion is lost, a con¬ 
dition of affairs that it is said can be voluntarily entered into by certain 
of the East Indian fakirs. Paulet reports the following: 

“A Hindoo devotee was buried, under the direct superintendence of 
a British officer, in a grave lined with masonry covered with large slabs 
and strictly watched. When disinterred three days after, the body was 
corpse-like, and no pulsation could be detected, at the heart or in the 
arteries, but it was restored by warmth and friction.” 

Remembering the possibility of such cases it is always prudent when- * 
ever there is the least uncertainty, and in all cases of sudden death, noth¬ 
ing should be done that might cause death until actual proof of putrefac¬ 
tion appears. Such proof would be the odor of death, frothing at the 
mouth, hypostatic discoloration and the changes about the eye previously 
described. Hence the great importance of a thorough knowledge on the 
part of the funeral director as to what is satisfactory proof of death. To 
facilitate this we add in tabular form all the evidences of death, known 
to be reliable at the present time. 

RECAPITULATION - . 

The proofs of death then are:— 

I. Cessation of heart's action and arrest of circulation of the blood 
as proven by: 

(a) Absence of heart’s sounds, 

(I?) Failure of heart to contract under galvanic current, 

(c) No response from acupuncture, 

(cl) No swelling from ligature, 

(e) Absence of spurting from a cut artery. 

II. Cessation of Respiration proven by:— 

(a) Absence of respiratory sounds, 

(h) Undimmed mirror, 

(c) Motionless feather. 

III. Changes in Eye which becomes 

(a) Irresponsive to atropine and light, 

(h) Without sensibility to touch or electric current, 


METHOD OF MAKING A POST-MORTEM. 


101 


(c) Clouded in conjunctiva and cornea, 

(d) Shrunken and loses its transparency, 

(c) Fundus paler by opthalmoscope, also pneumatosis, 

(/) Eyelids no longer elastic. 

IV. Progressive cooling of the body. 

V. Rigor mortis. 

VI. Minor proofs of death. 

(a) Loss of elasticity of the skin tissues, 

(b) Non-vesication, 

(c) Needle untarnished when inserted into body, 

(d) No increase in temperature by muscle contractions, 

(e) Opacity of fingers, 

(/) Injection of ammonia, 

(g) Failure of blood to coagulate, 

VII. Putrefaction. 

METHOD OF MAKING A POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION. 

Time Required 2 to 8 Hours. 

While it is not usually the duty of the attending undertaker to person¬ 
ally conduct an autopsy, circumstances may arise where it is clearly his 
duty to do so ; and to provide for such emergencies, the following section 
is added in the hope that it may be of service. For while it by no 
means attempts, by its perusal, to transform the reader into a pathologist, 
it may reasonably purpose to furnish such general directions for making 
an autopsy as will enable one fairly posted in regard to the location of 
the more important organs of the body, to make an intelligible report 
and such a one, as in the absence of the proper medical officer, may 
remove unjust suspicion of murder or suicide. A complete examination 
in any case of sudden death from unknown causes should embody all 
of the following points which have been re-arranged from Virchow’s 
recent work on Post-Mortem Examinations. 

I. External Appearance , under this head should be noted : 

1. Apparent age. 

2. Height. 

3. Build, muscles, fat. 

4. Color of body, noting especially that of abdomen, flanks, 

scrotum, and genitals. 

5. Hypostases and ecchymoses. 

6. Fluids escaping from the body, and whence. 

7. Hair and ears. 

8. Hands. 

9. Joints and their mobility. 

10. Face, eyelids, nostrils and lips. 


102 


PROOFS OF DEATH. 


11. Neck and thorax. 

12. Abdomen and genitals. 

13. Back and anus. 

14. Wounds, if any, and where located. 

II. Cranial Cavity. To open this the soft parts over the skull 
should be divided by an incision carried transversely over the head and 
the flaps reflected back, noting carefully the color of the same while so 
doing, as well as that of the skull itself. The skull should next be sawn 
through horizontally with the membranes of the brain which are 
removed with the upper half of the skull. Note excess of serum, also 
fluid in sinuses and effusions, if any; condition of arteries at base of 
brain and dura mater after stripping it from skull. The bones should 
be carefully examined for possible fractures and the general appearance 
of the surface of the brain noted. The lateral ventricles may be explored 
for information as to the amount of fluid they contain, but further ex¬ 
plorations of the brain substance is rarely of any real value except in the 
hands of an expert pathologist. 

III. Cavities of the body. To properly examine these a long in¬ 
cision is made extending from the chin to the pubic bones and the 
integument and muscles pulled back, noting at the same time the 
amount of fat and the color of the muscles. On opening the abdominal 
cavity examine while parts are in place for: 

1. The presence of any foreign body. 

2. The position of the arch of the diaphragm. 

3. Color and position of the abdominal viscera. 

4. Distension of the intestines with gas or fluids. 

5. Omentum and peritoneum. 

IV. The Thorax should be carefully inspected after having removed 
the sternum b}^ cutting it away from its attachments to the ribs through 
the costal cartilages. Then in order note: 

1. Color of lungs, pleura and pericardium. 

2. Fluid, if any in pleura or pericardium. 

3. Adhesions, if any, and where found. 

4. Heart, size, fat, color and amount of blood contained. 

5. Condition of the valves of the heart. 

6. Distension, if any, of the veins of the neck. 

V. Mouth and Windpipe. —The first should be examined as already 
directed, by opening the buccal cavity from below, the tongue drawn 
aside, and the upper part of the throat exposed. Note: 

1. Amount of froth, mucus or blood in the cavities. 

2. Appearance of the tongue. 

3. Size and color of the tonsils. 

4. Interior of the windpipe, color, swelling, etc. 


METHOD OF MAKING A POST-MORTEM. 


103 


VI. A complete autopsy would now require that the lungs, oesop¬ 
hagus, great vessels, stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys and bladder should 
be removed and examined separately, but unless this is done by an expert 
the examination is of comparatively little value. Hence it is far better 
in such cases as this section is designed to provide for, to carefully remove 
these organs and preserve them, either in part or entire, in clean new 
fruit jars and sealed, until such time as they can be examined by one 
competent to make such an examination. Tayloi recommends that a 
little chloroform be added before sealing, to assist in tne preservation of 
the viscera, especially where it is desired to make an examination of 
them afterwards for poison. 


Plate III. 

Figure I. Dissection of upper leg and landmarks for injection through 

the femoral artery: 

a. b. Line of PouparPs ligament. 

b. Pubic bone. 

f. v. Femoral vein. 

•/ 

/. a. Femoral artery. 

s. m. Sartorius muscles drawn back by hooks to show vessels and 
nerves beneath. 
p. a. Profunda artery. 

a. c. n. Anterior crural nerve. 

n} Branch of the great anterior crural nerve. 
s. v. Saphenous vein. 
e. p. External pudic artery. 

6*. i. Circumflex ilii arteries. 

Figure II. represents the measurements necessary to open the femoral 
artery to inject the body, viz.: Take one-half the distance between the 
central point of the pubic bone (b) and the most prominent bony part 
projection of the flank (a). From this midpoint (d) a line drawn to the 
most prominent bony projection on the inner side of the knee lies over 
the course of the artery which can be most conveniently entered at the 
point indicated in the cnt. 


104 



Plate I 




Copyr/f} ft / /8SS- 





















. 








. 



' 







. 


































SECTION III. 


I. The Chemistry of the Human Body. 

II. Putrefaction and the Causes which Hasten or Retard it 


105 












THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAH BODY. 


Bibliography: Gorup-Besanez, Vaughan’s Chemical Physiology 
and Pathology, Wheeler’s Medical Chemistry, Tidy’s Hand- 
Book of Modern Chemistry, Fowne’s Elementary Chemistry, 
Witt hags' General Medical Chemistry, and Bloxham’s Med¬ 
ical Chemistry. 

Having in Section II. briefly outlined the anatomy and histology of 
the human body, it will be necessary, for its further study with especial 
reference to its preservation from putrefaction, to remember that the 
human body is a chemical compound, a complex one to be sure, and one 
whose composition is not yet fully understood, but no less united in its 
parts by chemical affinity than is water or salt. Our present concern is 
not to explain life as a chemical reaction, for life is that which can not 
as yet be accounted for by chemistry or physics; but if possible to under¬ 
stand the changes which take place in the body after death. These 
putrefactive changes beyond all dispute come in accordance with 
the laws of chemistry and without a knowledge of these laws it is im¬ 
possible understandingly either to arrest or prevent decomposition. 

Decomposition in chemistry is the breaking up of a compound into 
simpler substances. The decomposition of the body therefore implies 
that it is a compound substance, and such chemists tell us it is, being 
composed of more than a baker’s dozen of elements. Elementary 
substances are so called because with the means at present at the dis¬ 
posal of chemists they have been unable to break them up into 
simpler or other substances. All known bodies are then either simple or 
compound, i. e., they can either be resolved into simpler compounds or 
they can not. 

Less than two hundred years ago it was universally believed that all 
substances were composed of earth, air, fire and water in varying pro¬ 
portions; and that the dryness, heat, solubility and other properties of a 
body depended upon the relative amount of the fire or water that it con¬ 
tained. The discovery of oxygen, by Priestly (1774), destroyed this 
belief, for it proved that all of the so-called elements of that day con¬ 
tained in some form or another oxygen, so that neither earth, air, fire 
nor water are elements but compounds, for bodies that can thus be resolved 



108 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


into simpler are called compound bodies; those that cannot be thus 
broken up are called simple, or elementary. The number of compound 
bodies is apparently without limits; the number of elementary bodies is 
about seventy. The annexed table gives their names, symbols, and 
atomic weights. It is not at all unlikely that many of these substances 
may eventually be shown to be compound bodies, and probably with new 
means of investigation others will be discovered, but so long as it is im¬ 
possible to resolve them into other dissimilar bodies, they are known as 
elements. 


LIST OF ELEMENTS. — (1886.) 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Atomic 

Wgt. 

Name 

Symbol. 

Atomic 

Wgt. 

Aluminium. 

A1 

27.4 

Mercury (Hydrargyrum). 

Hg 

200 

Antimony (Stibium). 

Sb 

122 

Molybdenum.,. 

Mo 

96 

Arsenic.. 

As 

75 

Nickel. 

Ni 

• 58.8 

Barium. 

Ba 

137 

Niobium. 

Nb 

94 

Beryllium (Glucinium).... 

Be 

9.4 

Nitrogen*. 

N 

14 

Bismuth. 

Bi 

210 

Osmium. 

Os 

199 2 

Boron *.,\. 

B 

11 

Oxygen *. 

0 

16 

Bromine*. 

Br 

80 

Palladium. 

Pd 

106.6 

Cadmium. 

Cd 

112 

Phosphorus *. 

P 

31 

Caesium. 

Cs 

133 

Platinum. 

Pt 

197 4 

Calcium. 

Ca 

40 

Potassium (Ivalium).... 

K 

39.1 

Carbon*. 

C 

12 

Rhodium. 

Rh 

104 4 

Cerium. 

Ce 

138 

Rubidium. 

Rb 

85 4 

Chlorine *. 

Cl 

35.5 

Ruthenium. 

Ru 

104 4 

Chromium . 

Cr 

52.2 

Selenium *. 

Se 

79 4 

Cobalt . 

Co 

58.8 

Silicon*. 

Si 

28 

Copper. 

Cu 

63.4 

Silver (Argentum) 

Act 

108 

23 

Didymium. 

D 

144.7 

Sodium (Natrium). 

Na 

Erbium. 

E 

168.9 

Strontium . 

Sr 

87 6 

Fluorine *. 

F 

19 

Sulphur *. 

S 

32 

Gallium. 

Ga 

68 ? 

Tantalum... . 

Ta 

182 

Gold (Aurum). 

Au 

197 

Tellurium *. 

Te 

128 

Hydrogen *. 

H 

1 

Thallium. 

T1 

204 

Indium. 

In 

113.4 

Thorinum. 

Tli 

231 5 

Iodine*. 

I 

127 

Tin (Stannum) . 

Sn 

118 

Iridium.... 

Ir 

198 

Titanium. 

Ti 

50 

Iron (Ferrum):. 

Fe 

56 

Tungsten, or Wolfram.. 

W 

184 

Lanthanum. 

La 

139 

Uranium. .. 

TT 

240 

Lead (Plumbum). 

Pb 

207 

Vanadium... . 

Y 

51 2 

Lithium. 

Li 

7 

Yttrium. 

Y 

92 

Magnesium. 

Mg 

24 

Zinc. 

Zn 

65 2 

Manganese . 

mS 

55 

Zirconium. 

Zr 

89.6 






Mosandrium. 

Pliilippium. 

Yterbium. 

Decipium. 


NEW METALS. [ ?] 

Thulium. 

Neptunium. 

Lavoisium. 


Scandium. 

Norwegium. 

Holmium. 






















































































IMPORTANT ELEMENTS. 


109 


JV. B. The twenty-four most important of these elements are printed 
in heavy black type,, those next in importance in small capitals. Those 
marked with a star following are the metalloids, the remainder are metals, 
and in consequence their names have the termination ium. 

These elements have been named according to the fancy of their dis¬ 
coverers; their names frequently being taken from the Latin or Greek, 
and not always being wisely chosen, e. g., oxygen, the most important 
of all the elements, is named from two Greek words which mean the 
acid maker, while we shall see later that oxygen is by no means essential 
to an acid. But it would be hardly profitable to criticise one by one the 
naming of these elements; neither is it necessary to commit to memory 
the symbols or contractions usually employed for convenience in writing 
all the elements, for more than half of them are simply chemical curi¬ 
osities. We give, however, below, a list of those whose symbols it 
is desirable to remember, as their compounds constitute the large major¬ 
ity of all the substances with which we are acquainted, and all of these 
elements are found either in the body or in chemicals useful for its pres¬ 
ervation. 

Aluminium , discovered by Woehler in 1828 in alum, for which rea¬ 
son he gave it its name. It is a silvery white metal. Symbol (Al iv — 
Al iv ) vi . 

2. A ntimony was discovered in the fifteenth century by Basil Valentine. 
Its English name is said to be derived from two Greek words which mean 
“ against monks,” as it was popularly believed to have been used as a 
poison for them. It is a bluish-white brittle metal. Its symbol is 
Sb Ui ., from its Latin name stibium. 

3. Arsenic , discovered as an element by Scliroeder in 1694; the 
metal had been known under various names since the times of the 
Greeks. It is a brittle, light, steel-gray solid with a metallic luster. 
Its symbol is As 111 . 

4. Barium, so named by Sir Humphrey Davy, who discovered it 
in 1808, in baryta or heavy spar. A pale yellow metal. Symbol, Ba”. 

5. Boron was also discovered by Davy, in borax, in 1807. Symbol, 
Bo.” 1 Amorphous, crystalline and graphitoid boron are known. 

6. Bromine was discovered by Balard, a French chemist, in 1826. It 
is a dense red liquid with a suffocating odor, from which the element is 

named from a Greek word signifying stench. Symbol, Br*. 

*7. Calcium is another of the metals discovered by Sir Humphrey 
Davy, in 1808. It is a light, yellow, malleable, ductile metal, which 
tarnishes in the air and decomposes water. It was named from calx, 
the Latin name of lime, from whence it was first obtained, and its 
symbol is Ca”. 

*8. Carbon is one of the elements which has been known in its various 


110 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


forms from time immemorial. Like boron it exists in three states, (a) 
Amorphns (Lampblack), (b) Graphitoidal (Plumbago) and (c) Crystallized 
(Diamond). Its name is from the Latin, and its symbol is C iv . 

*9. Chlorine was discovered by Scheele, a Swedish chemist, in 1774. 
It is a pungent, irritating gas and received its name from a Greek word, 
“yellowish-green,” on account of its color. Symbol Cl 1 . 

10. Chromium was discovered by Vauquelin in 1797, and named 
from the Greek word for color on account of the brilliant color of many 
of the chromium compounds. It is a steel-gray, hard, brilliant metal. 
Symbol, Cr vi . 

*11. Copper is one of the oldest of metals, being called by the Romans 
“ Cuprum,” from its supposed relation to Cyprus and Venus; it still pre¬ 
serves this in its symbol, Cu 11 . It is well known to all as a yellowish-red 
metal, which is very malleable and ductile. 

*12. Fluorine was probably obtained by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1808 by 
electrolysis, but from its vehement action on the glass vessels in which 
it was set free it was impossible to satisfactorily study its physical prop¬ 
erties. That obtained by the Knoxes in fluor spar vessels is said to be a 
colorless gas. It receives its name from fluor spar, where it was first 
found to exist. Symbol, F ! . 

13. Gold is too well known to need any description of its appearance 
or properties. Its symbol is a contraction of its Latin name, Aurum, 
viz.: Au m . 

*14. Hydrogen was discovered by Cavendish in 1766 and receives its 
name from two Greek words meaning the “water-maker,” as water was 
the original source from whicll it was obtained. It is the lightest of all 
known gases, colorless, odorless and readily inflammable and explo¬ 
sive on the application of a flame when mixed with oxygen or air. 
Symbol, IP. 

15. Iodine was discovered by Courtois, a French chemist, in 1811, 
and named from a Greek word meaning violet, on account of the color 
of its vapors. It is at ordinary temperatures a black solid, with a metal¬ 
lic luster, characteristic odor, and a violet vapor when slightly heated. 
Symbol, P. 

*16. Iron known to the ancients as one of the precious metals, has 
become by modern inventions one of the most common. Its properties 
are too well known to need description. Its symbol is taken from its 
Latin name Ferrum. Symbol, (Fe iv -Fe iv ) vi . 

17. Lead is another of the metals well known to the ancients and 
largely used at the present time. Its symbol is a contraction of its Latin 
name Plumbum. Symbol, Pb 11 . 

*18. Magnesium was discovered by Bussy in 1830 and named from 
magnesia, or its oxide, from which it was first extracted. It is a hard, 


IMPORTANT ELEMENTS. 


Ill 


white, light, malleable, ductile metal, which in thin hands readily takes 
fire from a lighted match. Symbol, Mg u . 

*19. Manganese was discovered by Gahn in 1780. It is a brittle, red¬ 
dish metal, so hard that it readily scratches steel and is very difficult to 
fuse. Symbol, Mn lv . 

20. Mercury is one of the metals that appears to have been known 
to the earliest of the alchemists. From its fluid condition it was called 
4 4 water silver ” by both the Greeks and the Romans. Its symbol is a 
contraction of its Latin name Hydrargyrum. Symbol, Hg“. 

*21. Nitrogen was so named by Rutherford, who discovered it in 1772, 
from two Greek words meaning maker of nitre, because nitrogen is 
one of its constituents. Like hydrogen, it is a colorless, odorless gas, 
hut unlike it, it is not combustible. Symbol, N m . 

*22. Oxygen is also named from two Greek words. Its name denotes 
that it is the 44 acid-maker," for the reason that when it was discovered 
by Dr. Priestley in 1774 it was considered an essential part of all acids. 
Like nitrogen it is a colorless, odorless gas. It is slightly heavier than 
nitrogen gas and sixteen times heavier than hydrogen. Symbol, O u . 

*23. Phosphorus was accidentally discovered in 1669 by Brand, an 
alchemist of Hamburg, while searching in urine for the philosopher's 
stone, or the substance which should convert all other substances into 
gold. Ordinary phosphorus is a flesh-colored solid of about the con¬ 
sistence of wax. Its most remarkable property is that it appears lumi¬ 
nous when viewed in the dark, and for this reason it received its name, 
which was taken from the Greek and means the 44 light-carrier. ” Sym¬ 
bol, P m . 

*24. Potassium is another of the metals discovered by Sir H. Davy 
in 1807-8. Its name is derived from potash, whence it was originally 
obtained. It is a silvery white metal which is waxy at ordinary tem¬ 
peratures and burns with a purplish flame when dropped into warm 
water. Symbol, K 1 derived from a barbarous new Latin word invented 
expressly for this purpose. 

25. Silicon was found by Berzelius in 1823 and given its name from 
the Latin word for flint or sand, in which he discovered it. Like carbon, 
silicon is known in three allotropic conditions, viz.: amorphous silicon, 
graphitoid silicon and crystallized silicon, the first being a dark brown 
powder and the form in which it is usually seen. Symbol, Si iv . 

26. Silver is one of the seven metals known to the ancients, and is 
so largely used in coin and plate that it needs no description here. To 
avoid confusion its symbol is not Si. as might be expected, but is taken 
from the Latin name for silver (Argentum). Symbol, Ag\ 

*27. Sodium was thus named' by Sir Humphrey Davy from sal soda 
whence he first obtained this element in 1807. Its appearance and proper- 


112 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


ties are very like those of potassium, except that the flame is yellow 
when sodium is dropped into water. The old name for sal soda is 
natron from which the chemical name of sodium (Natrium) is derived. 
Symbol, Nab 

*28. Sulphur has been known from the earliest times, being men¬ 
tioned by both Moses and Homer. Its name, sulphur, means the salt of 
Are, as it was called in the middle ages when sulphur was regarded as the 
principal of fire and every combustible body was thought to contain it. 
Sulphur, like silver, gold and a few other of the elements, is found in a 
native or uncombined condition as a canary-yellotv solid, which burns so 
readily that the name of brimstone or “ firestone 39 was long ago given 
it. Symbol, S". 

29. Tin was known at least as early as the days of the Romans, who 
gave it the name of Stannum from which it derives its present symbol. 
From the slight action at ordinary temperatures of either air or water 
upon it, tin is largely used as coating for many domestic utensils 
where its peculiar luster and color are well known. Symbol, Sn iv . 

30. Zinc was discovered by Paracelsus in the sixteenth century 
although under the name of spelter, an impure zinc, was used as early 
as the 13th. It forms the coating of what is known as galvanized iron, 
and is a bluisli-white, crystalline metal which is but slightly acted upon 
by the air or moisture. Symbol, Zn". 

These thirty elements are by far the most important of the list 
previously given, as from these are formed all of the compounds of prac¬ 
tical interest to the embalmer. Those marked with the star are found 
in the human body. They are fifteen in number and exist there in the 
following proportions, viz.: 

ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE BODY. 


Oxygen. 97.20 lbs. 

Carbon. 31.10 “ 

Hydrogen. 15.20 “ 

Nitrogen.. 3.80 “ (48. 3 cubic feet.) 

Calcium. 3.80 “ 

Phosphorous. 1.75 “ 

Chlorine.25 “ (1^ cubic feet.) 

Fluorine. .22 “ 

Sulphur. .22 “ 

Potassium. .18 “ 

Sodium. .16 “ 

Magnesium. .11 “ 

Iron.01 “ 


154 lbs. 

And in addition to the above, traces of manganese and copper are 


13 


















CHEMICAL AFFINITY. 


113 


always found in the body. The table given above is that furnished the 
National museum at Washington, by Prof. Atwater, of Wesleyan Univer¬ 
sity. Prof. Lancaster, of London, some years ago decomposed a human 
body weighing 158.4 lbs., and at a popular lecture exhibited the results 
which do not exactly coincide with those given above. His figures, as 
taken from a newspaper clipping, are as follows: 


CONSTITUENTS OF A HUMAN BODY. 


Oxygen. 

Hydrogen. 

Nitrogen. 

Carbon. 

Lime. 

Phosphorus... 

Sodium 

Iron 

Potassium V 

Magnesium 

Silicon 


Traces of sulphur, copper and fluorine. 


1.095 cubic feet. 
27.590 “ “ 

KQ i< << 

23.1 lbs 

2.2 “ 

22.3 oz. 


1 oz each. 


The former table is probably the more nearly exact, but in the nature 
of the case either is only approximative. The essential part of both is 
the fact that chemically the human body is composed of fifteen elements, 
viz.: 


5 Gases 


3 Metalloids.. 


7 Metals. 

0 


Oxygen. 

Hydrogen. 

-< Nitrogen. 

I Chlorine. 

[ Fluorine, 
f Carbon. 

-j Phosphorus 
[ Sulphur. 
Calcium 
Potassium. 
Sodium. 
Magnesium. 
Iron. 

Manganese. 

Copper. 


Chemical Affinity is the power or force that binds these various ele¬ 
ments together; for it must be remembered that a human body is not con¬ 
structed of its various elements simply mixed together. Years ago 
some of us read of an insane Frenchman, who had gathered together in 
a vast receptacle all of the elements in the proper proportions to construct 
a man, and according to the apocryphal tale, was engaged in agitating 
them together, hoping that at last blind chance would bring them to¬ 
gether in such happy apposition that a new Adam would be the result. 
















114 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


But chemistry teaches that there is no such thing as blind chance. 
Bodies are not made up of matter simply thrown together, but of matter 
bound together by one of the strongest of material forces, which the 
chemists in lieu of a better name now generally call 

CHEMISM, 

or chemical affinity. Like many other things of which we have but 
partial knowledge, Chemism has been called by many names. One of 
the first of these was Elective Gravitation, another Molecular Gravitation, 
another Chemical Attraction. The term Chemical Affinity was invented 
by Stahl, but the theory on which it is explained was foreshadowed in 
the writings of Lucretius. This atomic theory, as it is now called, will 
be taken up more in detail later. For the present it is sufficient to say 
that it presupposes all matter to be composed of a multitude of infinitely 
small bodies called atoms, which are held together by this force of 
chemical affinity. If the atoms are of the same kind we have 
a simple or elementary body; if there are dissimilar atoms held 
together by chemism then we have a compound body, but in either event 
it is chemical affinity which binds the atoms together. Just what 
chemism is, we know no more than we do what is heat, light, electricity 
or any other force. It is closely allied to electricity, possibly, it is one of 
its manifestations. Chemical (decomposition, under the proper sur¬ 
roundings, will produce an electrical current, and, vice versa; a galvanic 
current will break up a compound body sending one kind of its atoms to 
one pole and the others to another, showing that elements of unlike 
polarity are usually combined together. So generally is this true that 
the elements are frecjuently arranged in series according to the position 
they take at the poles of a galvanic battery, when a substance containing 
dissimilar atoms is broken up by sending a galvanic current through it. 
(See table of electro-chemical series, later.) 

Such a table is of great value in the naming of chemical compounds 
as we shall see later; for the present it is referred to merely to emphasize 
the fact that chemism usually holds together atoms unlike in polarity. Two 
positive or two negative atoms may combine and do, but it is often dif¬ 
ficult to say whether such compounds are held together by chemical 
affinity or mechanical attraction. 

While there is much that we desire to know concerning the force we 
call chemism there are certain facts that are established in reference to it, 
and that need to be borne in mind for a clear understanding of the chemis¬ 
try of the body. 

1. Then, it may be said that chemism is closely related to the other 
forms of force for all of their manifestations—heat, light, and the 
electrical current may and do result from chemical action. 

2. It is elective in its action, i. e., the various atoms have not like 


THE ATOMIC THEORY. 


115 


affinity for each other. For instance, the chlorine atom has a much 
greater liking or affinity for the hydrogen atom than it has for an atom 
of oxygen. If the atoms were as changeable in their affinities as human 
kind, chemistry would be the most bewildering of all sciences ; but for¬ 
tunately this is not so, for having once learned the chemical likes and 
dislikes of an element they are known for all time. For like the laws 
of the Medes and Persians which change not, under the same circum¬ 
stances, the chemical affinity between two or more elements, always 
remains exactly the same; therefor: 

3. Chemical affinity under the same circumstances is invariable. 

4. Chemism only acts at inappreciable distances and exerts its 
power in one of the five following ways, viz.: by 

{a) Union between similar or unlike atoms. In chemistry this is 
known as synthesis. 

(b) Resolution , or the separation of complex compounds into sim¬ 

pler, or elementary substances. 

( c) Displacement , or the substitution of one atom for another, as 

when zinc is dropped into muriatic acid and replaces its 
hydrogen by the metal. 

(d) Exchange, or double decomposition consists of a mutual exchange 

of atoms between two compounds, analogous to exchanging 
partners in a quadrille. 

(e) Re-arrangement is not a change of atoms but simply a change 

in their relative position as regards each other. 

Having thus briefly glanced at the methods in which chemism acts 
we are in position to consider more carefully 

THE ATOMIC THEORY^ 

on which modern chemistry rests. The thought that all matter is com¬ 
posed of a multitude of indivisible particles, or atoms, seems to have 
been dimly grasped by Lucretius, and others of the ancients; but in its 
present form it was first suggested by Wenzel, a German chemist, who 
published a work on “The General Theory of Affinities,” in 1774. 
This, in reality, contained the germ of the atomic theory; for it is there 
noted by Wenzel that when two neutral salts, such as sodic sulphate and 
plumbic acetate, are mixed together, an exchange of acids takes place, 
but that, nevertheless, the resulting products are neutral, proving, as he 
remarked, that the acid of the one salt was sufficient for the base of the 
other salt. In other words, Wenzel, without clearly understanding the 
law of atomic weights, discovered the principle now laid down as one of 
the fundamental laws of chemistry, viz.: 

When elements unite to forma definite chemical compound, they alio ays 
combine in the same proportions by 'weight. This law was still further 


116 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


elaborated, in 1792, by Richter, a chemist, who wrote a work on the 
Mathematics of Chemical Elements. This was mainly directed to 
illustrating the relative quantities of acid and base necessary for satura¬ 
tion. 

The theory of atomic weights, however, was first definitely formu¬ 
lated by Dalton, who, in studying the compounds of hydrogen and 
carbon, in 1800, noted the fact that where these substances united in 
more than one proportion, the higher proportions \were ahvays multiples of 
the lower , or what is now known as the second law of chemical combina¬ 
tion, for the law is as true concerning carbon and oxygen, or any 
two of the elements, as it is concerning carbon and hydrogen. From 
these facts he constructed what has been called Dalton’s Atomic Theory. 

1. That all matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible 
particles called atoms. (From the Greek, meaning uncutable.) 

2. That the atoms in a mass do not touch. 

3. That they are endowed with attractive and repulsive forces. 

4. That they have specific weights. 

The last fact is really the (only) discovery of Dalton, for the atomic 
constitution of matter, and its law of definite combinations had been 
stumbled upon by earlier observers; but to Dalton belongs the credit of 
surmising that the atoms had definite weights, differing with each kind 
of elementary matters and that these atoms combined only in the pro¬ 
portion of their weights or multiples thereof. 

ATOMIC WEIGHT. 

The actual weight of a single atom is so infinitesimal that it would be 
impossible to weigh one, even if it could be isolated. How then can it 
be proven that atoms differ in their weights? Only by inference 
from another fact proven by physicists, viz.: that equal bulks of 
gas of any kind, contain equal numbers of atoms. How, if all atoms 
had the same weights equal bulks of gas ought to weigh exactly 
the same. But they do not, for equal bulks of oxygen and hydrogen, 
for instance, stand in the relation to each other of sixteen to one in 
weight; consequently, if they contain the same number of atoms, as 
proven by physics, the atom of oxygen must weigh sixteen times as 
much as the atom of hydrogen. Similar experiments have proven that 
the carbon atom is twelve times heavier than the hydrogen atom; and in 
fact, the whole column of atomic weights given on page 108, similarly com¬ 
pares the weight of an atom of any element with that of hydrogen taken 
as the standard. These comparative weights of the atoms (hydrogen as 
the lightest body known, being regarded as 1,) are called atomic 
weights. Atomic weights, therefore, are relative weights, but not abso¬ 
lute weights. For example, when we say that mercury has an atomic 


LAWS OF CHEMISTRY. 


117 


weight, of 200, we mean that the atom of mercury would weigh 200 
times as much as the atom of hydrogen; but inasmuch as we cannot de¬ 
termine the exact weight of the hydrogen by scales, the number 200 does 
not express the absolute weight of the mercury atom in pounds, ounces, 
or grains; but simply says mercury vapor is 200 times heavier than hy¬ 
drogen gas. So that if we wish to be absolutely accurate, we may define 
“ the atomic weight of an element as that weight which it would occupy, in 
the state of gas, of the same volume as the unit weight of hydrogen under 
the same temperature and pressure. v (Tidy.) If, however, we cannot 
obtain the element in a state of gas as e. g. in the case of carbon, the 
atomic weight is then deduced from other considerations, such as the 
specific heat of the body, etc. Much of this may appear wearisome in 
its detail and reiteration; but it is so essential to an understanding of 
chemical symbols and equations that at the risk of prolixity we desire to 
emphasize the results arrived at by the adoption of the atomic theory 
viz.: 

The three laws of Chemistry. —1. The same substance always consists 
of the same elements combined in the same proportion ; e. g., having 
once learned the composition of water, water will always be found to 
have the same constituents, combined in the same proportions, wherever 
water mav be found. 

2. When one element combines with another in several proportions, 
the higher proportions are always multiples of the first, or lower ; as, for 
instance, in the case of nitrogen and oxygen, where we find the oxygen 
uniting with the nitrogen in the ratio of 16, 32, 48, 64 and 80, or in 
multiples of sixteen. 

3. If two elements combine with a third, the proportions in which 
they will combine with that third element are the same, or measures or 
multiples of the proportions in which they combine with each other. 
This will be more fully explained under the head of Valence, later. 

We are now prepared to fully understand the meaning of the symbols 
already given on page 108, and which are of the greatest value to the 
student of chemistry for many reasons. One of these reasons is the 
saving of time obtained by the use of formula} and equations to express 
chemical compounds and reactions. We might, for instance, write at 
length that white vitriol, or sulphate of zinc, is prepared by the addition 
of the proper proportions of metallic zinc to sulphuric acid, which are 
those of 65.2 parts of zinc to 98 parts by weight of sulphuric acid, 
or we may in chemical shorthand, so to speak, write the whole story 
as follows :Zn -{- H 2 S0 4 == H 2 -f ZnS0 4 , for this half line tells all and more 
than three lines above required for its telling. This is accomplished by 
means of chemical symbols and formulae which are by no means the 
unmeaning hieroglyphics they are often thought to be. 


118 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


Symbols are as old as the clays of the alchemists, who used those of 
the planets to denote the seven metals then known. Some of these 
names have come down to the present time, as for instance, nitrate of 
silver is sometimes called lunar caustic for the reason that silver had the 
symbol of the moon, and thus this salt has been known in consequence 
as lunar or “ moon-caustic " ever since. 

With a better knowledge of the laws of chemistry these symbols were 
of course dropped and the first letter, or letters, of the names of the ele¬ 
ments have been adopted to denote a single atom of any of the element¬ 
ary substances. (See page 108.) When it is wished to express more than 
a single atom of any element, small figures are used below and to the rear 
of the symbol ; thus five atoms of hydrogen would be written H 5 , or, as 
it is frequently done, though not so well, unless it is meant to multiply 
several symbols by the same number, 5H. A grouping of symbols is 
known as a formula, (plural formulas) ; e. g., ZnS0 4 is the formula express¬ 
ing white vitriol, and it tells us exactly how white vitriol is composed; 
for the formula tells the reader that this salt contains one atom of zinc, 
one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen. And furthermore 
than this, it informs him of the proportions by iveight in which they are 
combined, for as each atom has its own weight, ZnS0 4 tells us that to 
form white vitriol it is necessary in some way to combine zinc, sulphur 
and oxygen in the proportions of 65.2 -f- 32 -f- 4 X 16. How this can be 
done and what shall be the name given to the resulting compound comes 
naturally later. At present we are chiefly concerned with the white 
vitriol molecule (ZnS0 4 ), for this name, from the Latin molecula, a little 
mass, is given to any grouping together of atoms, held together by 
chemical affinity. 

MOLECULES. 

“ A molecule/' according to Tidy, “is the smallest possible cluster of 
elementary atoms capable of existing as a compound, and of having an 
independent chemical action." How, as the smallest possible cluster of 
which we can think is two, it follows that a molecule may contain any 
number of atoms from two upwards. These atoms may be similar or dis¬ 
similar, and, consequently, a molecule may be either simple or compound. 
A simple molecule is one which is made up of the same kind of atoms held 
together by chemical affinity; consequently simple molecules are only 
found in simple or elementary bodies. ZnSCfi is evidently not that kind 
of a molecule, for it contains three different kinds of atoms, viz.: zinc, 
sulphur, and oxygen. It is, therefore, a compound molecule, i. e., one 
made up of two or more different kinds of elementary atoms. As each 
symbol expresses both some kind of elementary matter and its relative 
or atomic weight, the sum of these weights must express that of the 
molecule. If, therefore, ZnS0 4 is the formula of white vitrol, and Zn de- 


EQUIVALENCE. 


119 


notes an atomic eighth of 65.2.; S that of 32, and 0 4 equals 16 x 4, then 
the molecular weight of ZnS0 4 equals 65.2 plus 32 plus 4x16, which 
gives as its molecular weight 169.2. Similarly 18 is the molecular weight 
of water, which has the formula H 2 0 (See table of atomic weights, page 
108.) The molecular weight of any substance may be obtained by add¬ 
ing together the atomic weights of its constituent symbols. 

It is more than likely that all we know concerning chemism is what 
has been learned from these molecules, for it is very improbable that the 
atoms ever exist uncombined. Even elementary matter is undoubtedly 
composed of molecules of two or more atoms linked together by chemical 
affinity. In fact, the study of these molecules, and the possible changes 
that may be produced in them constitutes modern chemistry, which has 
been admirably defined by Barker as that branch of physical science 
which treats of the “alterations in kind, number or relative position of 
the atoms which compose the molecule.” The different kinds of atoms 
have, perhaps, been sufficiently dwelt upon on pp. 109-112, as has also 
tlie laws of their combination by definite weights or proportionate multi¬ 
ples of the same, but there is still another law or discovery which has so 
important a bearing on the formation of the molecule that we shall 
devote the following section to it. 


VALENCE, OR EQUIVALENCE 

is one of the more recently discovered properties of atoms, which are 
now believed to differ one from another, not only in kind and weight, 
but also in combining power. Atomic weight is the relative weight of an 
atom as compared with hydrogen. Valence is the combining poiver of an 
atom measured by hydrogen. To illustrate, let us return to the equation 
used on page 117 to express the manufacture of white vitrol (ZnS0 4 ) from 
zinc and sulphuric acid. This equation runs as follows : Zn -f H 2 S0 4 = 
ZnS0 4 -f- H 2 . Now as in algebra, one side of an equation must exactly 
balance or equal the other, it clearly appears that an atom of zinc is the 
equivalent of two atoms of hydrogen. If instead of Zn in the equation 
we substitute cautic potash or KOH we shall have the following reac¬ 
tion, viz.: 

KOH + H 2 S0 4 = KHS0 4 + H 2 0, 

or one molecule of caustic potash when added to one of sulphuric acid 
produces a compound of potassium, hydrogen, sulphur, oxygen and 
water. From reasons to be given later this compound of potassium, hy¬ 
drogen, and sulphur is called acid or bisulphate of potash, and is pro¬ 
duced by substituting one atom of potassium for one atom of hydrogen 
in the formula II 2 S0 4 , which has already been given as that for sul¬ 
phuric acid. As we have also another sulphate of potassium (K 2 S0 4 ) in 
which two atoms of potassium (K 2 ) are substituted for the atoms of liy- 


120 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUM Ail BODY. 


clrogen (IR) in sulphuric acid, it follows that we have in chemistry 
atoms whose value is ecpial exactly to one atom of hydrogen, as is true in 
the case of K: others whose atom as that of zinc (Zn) can substitute 
two of hydrogen, as seen in the equation referred to so often before 
viz.: 

Zn + H 2 S0 4 = ZnS0 4 + H 2 . 

Atoms that have a valence, or an equivalence of one atom of hydrogen, 
i. e., those that can he substituted for one atom of hydrogen are called 
monads; those whose valence is two are known as dyads; those equal 
three, triads; four, tetrads; five, pentads; six, hexads, from the corres¬ 
ponding Greek numerals. The valence of an atom is usually denoted by 
a small, Roman numeral placed above and to the rear of a symbol as 
may be seen in the symbols on page 109-112, and in the annexed list 
which gives the hydrogen compounds of the more important elements, 
at the same time giving their valence also : 


HYDROGEN COMPOUNDS ILLUSTRATING VALENCE. 


HCl 

HBr 

i i 

HI 

i i 

HF 


i ii 

h 3 o 

i ii 

IRS 

i ii 

H 2 Se 

i ii 

H 9 Te 


ni l 

ph 3 

iii i 

AsIR 

iii i 

SbIR 

iii i 

NH a 



i 

4 

i 


PH, 


iv i 


FeJR 


- etc. 

J 


From what has already been said, it follows that the elements, includ¬ 
ing hydrogen, in the first column must be monads; those in the sec¬ 
ond, dyads; those in the third, triads, and those in the last various, 
as may be learned from their distinguishing marks. There can be 
no difficulty in understanding the valence of any of the elements in the 
list until we come to the last, Fe 2 II 6 , which is apparently a contradiction 
of what has already been said, for the iron atom (Fe) has the mark of a 
tetrad; and yet two of its atoms, instead of equalling (2 X 4) atoms of 
hydrogen, as they ought according to the law already laid down, are 
apparently satisfied or equal to six atoms (II 6 ) of hydrogen. The expla¬ 
nation on this brings us to another fact, viz.: 

The valence of an element is not invariable. Where there is more 
than one valence to an atom, they differ one from another usually bv 
two. Thus we have compounds of chlorine and oxygen as follows: 

i ii iii ii v ii vii ii 

C1 2 0 ; C1 2 0 3 ; C1 2 0 5 ; C1 2 0 7 ; or molecules in which chlorine has a val¬ 
ence of one, three, five and seven, as the valence of oxygen is always 

ii iv 

two. Carbon (C) also forms oxides—CO and C0 2 —in which it has a 
valance of two and four, respectively. This variation in valences by two 
is so frequent that various explanations have been sought, and of these 
the most reasonable one is that which seeks its explanation in what is 



EQUIVALENCE. 


121 


known as self-saturation, which can be best explained graphically, or by 
rude diagrams. We may denote the valence of an atom by the Roman 
numerals, as already used, or we may express the equivalence of an atom 
in hydrogen by drawing lines from its symbol in various directions, 
meaning thereby that each of these may be united with an atom of 

hydrogen or its equivalent. For instance : Cl denotes that the chlorine 

atom here is a monad ; Cl — denotes the same thing, and Cl-H 

would mean that its valence had been united or saturated with hydrogen. 
As = II 3 means that arsenic has a valence of three, and that its bonds 
(for so these marks of valence are generally called) are all satisfied by the 
three atoms of hydrogen affixed. 

The same method might be used to express any valence of an atom 
or all those of a molecule. Take for instance the highest oxide of chlorine 
in which the valence of chlorine is 0 


0=C1=0 

1 

0 . 

o=ci=o 


0 


seven Cl 2 0 7 . It might be represented 
thus, oxygen always having an 
equivalence of two and consequently 
satisfying two bonds anywhere. Some 
of these graphic formulae are appar¬ 
ently quite complex, but their intri¬ 
cacy is more apparent than real for the most complicated graphic 
symbol is nothing more than a convenient device to explain the theory 

that all the bonds or valences of 
each atom in a molecule must be 
equalized or satisfied by the 
bonds or valences of other atoms 
in the molecule. The present 
theory, then, is that atoms cannot 
valences, but that they themselves 
According to this theory the true 


Ammonia carbonate. 

H 0 H 


H—N—0—C—0—N—H 


FI H 

exist with uncombined bonds or 
may satisfy some of these bonds, 
valence of an element is always its highest, but by its bonds 
pairing off two by two it may act with a lower valence. For instance, 
chlorine is such, and according to this theory its true quantivalence 
is seven, but supposing two of its bonds mutually satisfy each other, 
we then have a chlorine atom with a valence 
of five according to annexed graphic formulae. . =ClO 
If now two more do the same, the number of bonds in the above chlorine 
atom then left to be saturated or satisfied, would be three, and by re¬ 
peating the process we have a monad chlorine atom or one with only one 
unsatisfied bond. Below that, of course, its valence cannot fall; and for the 
reasons given above every change in the valence of an element must be by 
two bonds or its multiple, for less than a pair cannot saturate one another. 







THE CHEMISTRY OE THE HUMAN RODY. 


122 

But, asks the reader, how can one know what is the valence of any given 
element if it changes so often? Generally the other atoms in a molecule 
help us to answer this question for usually when there is one atom of a 
variable valence in a molecule the others are those of a settled valence; so 
that by a very simple calculation we arrive at an answer if we remember 
that a molecule is always a chemical compound of completely satisfied 
bonds. Further illustrations of this will be given as from time to time 
it shall be convenient to use graphic formulae in the explanation of 
chemical compounds; but for the present it is sufficient to remember 
that every molecule is composed of atoms all of whose bonds are satisfied, 
and that these atoms may occasionally satisfy their own bonds, two at a 
Fme, or two atoms may join together to form what is known as a 

♦ 

COMPOUND RADICAL. 

iv 

Such an one is met with in the compound Fe 2 H,;, where the Iron (Fe) 
atom is apparently a triad, and yet in the other compounds, in 
which we meet with the iron atom it is clearly a dyad.' This is so con¬ 
trary to the rule, that atoms change their valence only by two, or its 
multiples, that it needs an explanation and this is furnished in the ex¬ 
istence of what is known as a radical. These radicals were originally 
defined as an element that may he transferred from one combination to 
another in exchange for one or more atoms of hydrogen or its equivalent ; 
but latterly it has been found that elementary atoms are not the only 
ones that can thus be transferred; for certain unsatisfied groups of atoms 
may thus pass from one combination to another exactly as does the unsat¬ 
isfied atom. This group of atoms whose valences are not satisfied if it 
can pass from one combination to another is called a radical; which name 
it ought to be remembered is also applied to the elements as the roots 
or the essential parts of a molecule. And it is only because these unsat¬ 
isfied groups of atoms can pass from one combination to another as the 
elements that they are given the same name radical; for it must be 
remembered that all unsatisfied groups can not act in this way, but only 
those in which there is enough coherence between the atoms to enable 
them to act as simple radicals or elements. These radicals, like the ele¬ 
ments, may be monad, dyad, triad, etc., and to distinguish them have 

been given names ending in vl. Hydroxyl, which is the _ 

most important of them all is here illustrated graphically. ^ ^ 

As oxygen is always dyad, or has two bonds, and hydrogen is always 
monad and has one bond only, it follows that one atom of oxygen 
united to one atom of hydrogen would leave one of the bonds un¬ 
satisfied as represented above. Now as it is found that this combination 
of oxygen and hydrogen may be made to pass from one molecule to an¬ 
other like a simple element, or radical, we call it a compound radical. 


CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 


123 


since it contains more than one kind of atom, and name it hydroxyl , 
li om its likeness to water in its chemistry. This hydroxyl radical is one 
of the most important in modern chemistry, for we shall learn hereafter 
that by its union with hydrogen it forms water; by its union with a 
metal, 01 a positive radical, it forms the hydrates or bases; and by its 

union with a negative radical, it gives us the almost innumerable list of 
acids. 


PSEUDO-VALENCE. 

In a brief resume of chemistry, such as this, it would hardly be profit¬ 
able to give a list of even the more important compound radicals. Their 
names will be given as there arise occasions to use them, so that for the pres¬ 
ent the subject is dismissed with an explanation only of the compound 
radicals found in the alum and ferric salts, both of which are among those 
used as preservatives. According to their tabulated valence both are tetrads, 
or atoms with four bonds, and yet they enter into combination apparently 
as triads. This can be best explained by a reference to iv j V 
the list of the thirty more important elements(page 109) == (^ Al)=. 

where the double aluminium atom is graphically represented as above,show¬ 
ing that by self saturation it has only six bonds left free to enter into com¬ 
bination, . hence the , y . formula for its combination with 

chlorine (Cl) would read, Al 2 Cl 6 . There is a corresponding salt of iron 
and a similar combination with hydrogen, given on page 119, where 
it may be noted that the Fe atoms form a compound radical with a 
valance of six exactly like that shown in the case of Al. Such com¬ 
pound atoms are said to have a false valence, and are consequently known 
as pseudo-triads, monads, etc., as the case may be. 


NOMENCLATURE. 

Thus far we have used only the ordinary or popular names of the 
chemicals referred to. These have been given them for the most varied 
reasons ; many are named from their fancied resemblance to other things 
often chemically most unlike ; for instance sulphuric acid is often called 
oil of vitriol from its oily appearance, although it is anything but oily in its 
behavior. Others were named from some remarkable property of theirs, 
as ammonia gas is still known as volatile alkali, and-other chemical com¬ 
pounds are called by the names of their discoverers, as Glauber’s salt and 
the salt of Algaroth. We shall endeavor in the section on Antiseptics 
and Disinfectants to give as far as possible both the former and modern 
name"’ of all the substances used for these purposes; but in the present 
section the time has now arrived when only the proper chemical names 
should be given to the compounds which we are called upon to further 
consider, for chemical salts are at present no longer called after the fancy 
of their discoverers, but are named according to definite rules, so that 








124 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUM AH BODY. 


the name of a chemical compound expresses its composition as explicitly 
as its symbols give its atomic weight. Our present system of nomen¬ 
clature was suggested in 1781, by Guyton de Morveau, who proposed 
that the name of a body should indicate somewhat its properties and 
composition, and should have its root in the dead languages. In 1787 
he obtained for this purpose the assistance of the French Academy of 
Sciences, and Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy, were appointed to 
assist him in the task. The system suggested at that time is essentially 
the one in use at the present, and is both simple and accurate. 

The names of the elements, as has already been said, were mainly 
selected from individual fancy, and with the exception of azote, which 
was formerly the French name for,nitrogen, have remained unchanged, 
although, with our present knowledge, better names might be chosen 
for many of them. 

♦Binary compounds are those in which two elements or radicals com¬ 
bine to form the molecule, and are always indicated by the termination 
ide. An oxide, then, is a binary compound, containing oxygen united 
to a more positive element or radical; for the termination ide , always 
belongs to the negative element, while the positive element remains un¬ 
changed, or takes the ending ic. Thus KI is the formula for a binary com¬ 
pound, since it indicates a molecule containing two different elements, 
potassium (K) and iodine (I). Its name, consequently, ends in ide, and 
as the ide is added to the negative element (always written last in for¬ 
mula) it would be an iodide of some kind. The earlier method was to 
call it an iodide of potassium, or iodide of potash, but latterly the name 
would be potassic iodide. 

Sir Humphrey Davy suggested that the terminations in these cases 
should indicate property; ide being employed only for acids, and uret 
for alkaline compounds, but the suggestion has never come into general 
use although the term sulphuret is sometimes used in the place of sul¬ 
phide; and furthermore the word anhydride is occasionally applied to 
those oxides which on the addition of water form an acid (see acids). 
The name of a binary compound ought then to present no difficulties 
except in the decision of which is the positive and whicli the negative 
radical, or element. . 


ELECTRO CHEMICAL SERIES. 


125 


ELECTRO CHEMICAL SERIES. 


Positive Elements 
because found at 
negative pole or 
cathode. 


Caesium. 

Rubidium. 

Potassium. 

Sodium. 

Lithium. 

Barium. 

Strontium. 

Calcium. 

Magnesium. 


Glucinum. 

Yttrium. 

Erbium. 

Aluminium. 

Zirconium. 

Thorium. 

Cerium. 

Didymium. 

Lanthanum. 

Manganese. 

Zinc. 

Iron, 

Nickel. 

Cobalt. 

Thallium. 

Cadmium. 

Lead. 

Indium. 

Tin. 

Bismuth. 

Uranium. 

Copper. 

Silver. 

Mercury. 

Palladium. 

Ruthenium. 

Rhodium. 

Platinum. 

Iridium. 

Osmium. 

Gold. 

Hydrogen. 

Silicon. 

Titanium. 

Tantalum. 

Tellurium. 

Antimony. 

Carbon. 

Boron. 

Tungsten. 


Practice soon teaches that the oxi¬ 
des, the sulphides, the iodides, 
bromides, fluorides and phosphides 
are the usual binary compounds, and 
that in consequence oxygen, sulphur, 
nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, brom¬ 
ine and phosphorus are most fre¬ 
quently found of the negative ele¬ 
ments. Whenever the case is in 
doubt it can be settled by reference 
to the annexed list, which gives the 
polarity of the elements in reference 
to one another; the positive ele¬ 
ments being found at the top of 
the column and the negative at the 
bottom. It should also be remem¬ 
bered that each element is positive 
to all below it and negative to those 
above, so that an element that stands 
midway may be both positive and 
negative according to its combina¬ 
tion. Such a one is hydrogen, 
which in combination with zinc 

ii 

would form a hydride ZnH 2 but if 
found in combination with oxygen 
becomes the positive element, and 
consequently the oxygen takes the 
termination ide and the compound 
is known as oxide of hydrogen (H 20 ). 

One further point in regard to 
these binary combinations requires 
our attention and that is when a 
negative element enters into combi¬ 
nation with a jiositive element which 
has more than one valence. Thus 
tin (Sn.) ii iv and chlorine (Cl) 1 com¬ 
bine to form chlorides in one of 
which the tin atom has four bonds 
to be satisfied by the monad chlor¬ 
ine, and in the other by self satura¬ 
tion it has but two left for the chlor- 
rine. Two methods have been de- 


i 


120 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


vised to meet this case : the first of 
which is the one usually employed. 

This is the use of a suitable termi¬ 
nation for the positive as well as the 
negative elemeilt. The endings used 
are ic and ous. The termination ic 
is given to the positive constituent 
(Sn.) of the compound when it con¬ 
tains the largest proportion of the 
negative constituent (Cl), and the 
termination ous to the positive con¬ 
stituent, when the compound con¬ 
tains the smallest proportion of the negative constituent. For example: 
The S 11 CI 4 , containing more of the negative element (Cl) than SnCl 2 , is 
known as stannic chloride and the other as stannous chloride. 



Molybdenum. 

Vanadium. 

Cliromium. 

Arsenic. 

Phosphorus. 

Selenium. 

Iodine. 

Bromine. 

Chlorine. 

Negative because 

Fluorine. 

found at 

Nitrogen. 

positive 

Sulphur. 

pole. 

Oxygen. 


2. The other and less frequently used method is to indicate indirectly 
this difference in valence by prefixes added to the negative element. 
These prefixes are taken from the Latin or Greek numerals, and thus 
indicate the number of the negative atoms used. For instance, w r e have 

iv ii 

two oxides of carbon C0 2 and CO, in the first of which carbon mani- 

iv ii 

festly acts the part of a tetrad (C), and in the other as a dyad (C). 
According to the rule previously given, these oxides would be known as 
carbonic oxide and carbonous oxide respectfully, but they may also be 
called carbonic monoxide, and carbonic dioxide, according as they have 
one or two atoms of oxygen. The Greek prefixes are mono , di, tri, tetra 
and penta , for one, two, three, four and five respectively, or the Latin 
numerals may be* used instead, for there is no rule as to which shall be 
chosen. Other prefixes are occasionally used, viz: 

1 . Per denotes the highest compound in a series. For example, 
a peroxide signified that oxide which contains the largest quantity of 
oxygen in a series of oxides. 

2 . Sesqui denotes a compound where the relationship of the elemen¬ 
tary atoms is as two to three. For example, sesquioxide of iron (really 
ferric oxide) has the formula Fe 2 0 3 . (See Pseudo-Valence.) 

3. Proto (from the Greek, first) denotes the first of a series of 
compounds. For example, the protoxide of iron (FeO, better called 
ferrous oxide), contains the smallest quantity of oxygen of any iron and 
oxygen compound. 

4. Pur a signifies equal. For example, paracyanogen implies a body 
chemically equal to cyanogen. 

5. Sub indicates that the compound contains less of the constitu¬ 
ent than another compound of the same name. 


TERNARY SALTS. 


127 


TEENAKY COMPOUNDS. 

1 he naming of ternary compounds, or those which contain three ele¬ 
ments, or radicals, is a little more intricate, but can be easily mastered by 
anyone who really wishes so to do. And first, it should be remembered 
that the usual termination for the name of a ternary compound is either 
ate or ite, according to the valence of the negative element, or radical, 
for ternary compounds, like binary, contain positive and negative ele¬ 
ments, but the ternary compound, unlike the binary, does not join these 
elements directly together, but links them by a third. The element 
which most frequently acts the part of the link is oxygen. A very large 
proportion of the ternary compounds known to chemistry contain linking- 
oxygen, and are said to be made up on the type of water. [H + -[O u ]—H-. 
Now if we substitute for the negative hydrogen atom an atom of some 
metal, or a positive radical, we shall have what is known in chemistry as 
a base or hydrate. 

A base or hydrate , then, is a positive element or radical, linked to 
one or more atoms of hydrogen by as many atoms of oxygen. K-O-II, 
according to this rule, w r ould be a base, for it contains a positive atom 
(K) linked to one atom of hydrogen by a single atom of oxygen. The 
bases have an alkaline reaction, that is, turn a red litmus paper blue. 

An acid differs in theory from a base only in having a negative atom 
or radical—more frequently the latter—linked by oxygen to hydrogen. 
These acids have a sour taste, and turn blue litmus paper red. 

A ternary salt is one that is formed by the union of an acid and a 
base; thus, potassic base added to nitric acid gives saltpetre and water, 
or, graphically, K-0H-)-H-0-(N v 0 3 )=H-0H-|-K0N0^ or, chemically 
speaking, one molecule of potassic hydrate, added to one of nitric acid, 
displaces its hydrogen radical by potassium and forms a salt. And how 
shall this salt be named? By the rule previously given it must have the 
termination “ate” or “ite” to denote that it is a ternary compound. 
Whether it shall be ate or ite depends upon the valence of the negative ele¬ 
ment, which in this case, by reference to the table on page 119, will be 
found to be nitrogen, for oxygen in ternary compounds always acts as 
the link or is utilized in the radical, hence they are named from some 
other element. If these ternary compounds were all written graphically 
we could tell at a glance whether they were bases, acids, or salts; but as 
they are usually written it takes some little ingenuity to do so; but never¬ 
theless, it is not difficult if we bear in mind the distinctions between 
an acid, base, and salt previously given. Under these KOH is clearly a 
base because it contains a positive radical (K) linked by oxygen to hy¬ 
drogen. KU 0 . 3 , or as it is better written, K-0-N0 2 , is evidently not a 
base, for although it contains the same positive atom and linking oxygen 


128 


TIIE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


they are not joined to hydrogen. Nor is hydrogen found in the com¬ 
pound, therefore it cannot be an acid, for nowadays it is taught that no 
acid can exist without its containing replaceable hydrogen. K 0-N0 2 , 
or KN0 3 as it is more frequently written, if neither acid nor base and a 
ternary compound, is probably an ate, or an ite salt. Which? That 
depends upon the valence of nitrogen as has already been said. On 
turning to our -list of elements we find that the valence of nitrogen is 
usually three. Is it so here? No, because if it was triad, K-0-N0 2 would 
be an unsatisfied compound, for oxygen has always two bonds, and 
in no possible way could a triad element satisfy more than three of them. 
In the present molecule the oxygen atoms have altogether six bonds, 
but one of these is satisfied by the monad element (K), so that 
as 0 3 =6 nitrogen (N) must have a satisfying power equal to five atoms of 
hydrogen, consequently its valence is five, or one of the higher valences 
of nitrogen, and consequently it is a nitr(ogen)ate, or, by dropping the 
superfluous syllable, a nitrate. Now, if a nitrate, it must be a nitrate of 
something,-and the positive element (K) tells what this is; viz., potas¬ 
sium; so that at last, by this round about process we have arrived at the 
conclusion that K0N0 2 or KN0 3 , represents potassium nitrate, or nitrate 
of potassium. 

What we desire in the naming of these ternary compounds is some 
easy method of arriving at the valence of the negative element, for that 
found the naming of the compound is comparatively easy. The simplest 
rule is this: deduct from twice the number of the oxva'en atoms in the 
compound the valence of the positive atoms, and the resulting number 
will, except in a few exceptional cases, give the valence of the negative 
element; e. g., the valence of sulphur in Na 2 S0 4 , according to this rule 
would be 8—2=6; therefore, the valence of sulphur in f Na—0—g—Q 
the molecule is 6, as may be proven by the annexed ( Na—0— =0 
graphic formula, which shows that a sulphur atom, with a valence of 
six, would have all its bonds satisfied in the formula Na 2 0 2 S0 2 , or, 
Na 2 S0 4 , and, as six is the higher valence of sulphur, the compound would 
be a sulphate of sodium, .. or sodium sulphate, as it is 

better called. Similarly S, in MgS0 3 =6—2=4, or the sulphur atom is 
tetrad, and con- .. sequently the formula denotes an ite compound, and 
as magnesium (Mg) is the positive element, it is a sulphite of magne¬ 
sium, or magnesium sulphite. 

acids. 

The same method may be applied to the naming of the acids, which, 
according to this rule would be known as hydrogen salts: e. g., IIC10 3 , 
or II0C10 2 would be a hydrogen chlorate, or an ate salt, for chlorine, 
according to the rule given, would have a valence of (6—1=5) five, and 


INORGANIC ACIDS. 


129 


hence the termination denoting this. The acids may all be readily 
named, if the valence of the negative element is obtained by subtracting 
irom twice the number of their oxygen atoms the number of their atoms 
of hydrogen and then calling them either hydrogen salts with their 
appropriate endings, or ic and ous acids, remembering that the ic ter¬ 
mination belongs to the higher valence. The more important of these 
oxygen acid are given below under both names: 


Hydrogen nitrate, 

“ sulphate, 


a 


i i 


<< 


a 




a 


(< 


4 4 


(( 




(( 


{< 


(( 


£C 


a 


chlorate, 

carbonate, 

phosphate. 

chromate, 

nitrate, 

chlorate, 


HN0 3 , or II0N0 2 = nitric acid. 

vi 

H 2 S0 4 , or H 2 0 2 S0 2 = sulphuric acid. 
HC10 3 , or H0C10 2 = chloric acid. 

v iv 

H 2 C0 3 , or II 2 0 2 C0= carbonic acid. 

v 

H 3 P0 4 , or H 3 0 3 P0= phosphoric acid. 

vi 

H 2 Cr0 0 orII 2 0 2 Cr0 2 = chromic acid. 

iii 

HN0 3 , or II0N0 2 = nitrous acid. 

iii 

HC10 2 , or H0C10= 


hypochlorate, HCIO, or IIOCl= 


borate, 

sulphite,* 


iii 


H,BO s , or 11,0,13= 


3 v - y 3 J 


IV 


H 2 S0 3 , or H 2 0 2 S0= 


chlorous acid, 
hypochlorous acid, 
boracic acid, 
sulphurous acid. 


VI 


manganate, H 2 Mn0 4 ,or H 2 0 2 Mn0 4 =manganic acid. 


arsenite, 

arsenate, 

silicate, 


111 


H 3 As 0 3 , or H,0,As= arsenious acid. 


L 3 vy 3 


H 3 As 0 4 , or H,0,As0== arsenic acid. 


L 3 v/ 3 


iv 


H 4 Si0 o or H 4 0 4 Si= (ortho)silicic acid. 


VI 


ortho sulphateH c S0 6 , or H 6 0 6 S= ortho sulphuric acid. 

v 

ortho nitrate, I1 5 N0 5 , or H 5 0 5 N= ortho nitric acid, 
etc., etc., etc., etc., etc. 


For the list of acids is almost interminable, but perhaps sufficient have 
been given to illustrate their formation and nomenclature. In so 
doing we have used a few other terms which need definition. One of 
these is: 

1 . Ortho , which when prefixed to an acid denotes that it contains as 
many atoms of hydrogen as it does of oxygen, and that each of these is 
ecfual in number to the valence of the negative element; for in¬ 

stance, H 5 NO 5 is ortho nitric acid, for the reason that it contains 5 
atoms each of hydrogen and oxygen, and this number (5) is exactly 


9 


130 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


equal to the valence of nitrogen as ascertained by rule previously given, 
viz.: 5 X 2—5=5, or the valence of nitrogen. 

2. Meta signifies near to. Thus, metaphosphoric acid only differs 
from ortho-phosphoric acid by one molecule of water. Ortho- 
phosplioric acid is not given in the above list, but its for¬ 

mula would be H 5 P0 5 . Now substracting y from this a molecule 
of water (H 2 0), we should have the formula H 3 P0 4 , thus: 

H 5 P V 0 6 -H 2 0=H 3 P0 4 =H303P V 0 

or ordinary phosphoric acid, although properly speaking it ought to 
be called meta phosphoric acid to distinguish it from ortho phosphoric 
acid (H 5 P0 5 ). In fact, to be absolutely accurate it ought to be called 
mono-metaphosphoric acid, for it is derived from the ortho phosphoric 
acid by the abstraction of one molecule of water; and there is another 
meta phosphoric acid known, produced by the abstraction of two mole¬ 
cules of water from ortho phosphoric acid thus: 

H 5 P V 0 5 —2 (H 2 0 )=II 0 P0 2 , 

or dimeta phosphoric acid to distinguish it from the mono-meta (H 3 P0 4 ) 
mentioned above. 

3. Hypo (from the Greek under), denotes the position of a com¬ 
pound. -Thus, the acid containing less oxygen than chlorous acid is 
called hypochlorous acid, viz.: HCIO. 

4. Hyper (from the Greek, over), refers to the converse of the prefix 
hypo. Thus, hypersulphurous acid (commonly called hyposulphuric 
acid) denotes an acid containing more acid than sulphurous acid. 

Finally it should be remembered that there are other acids than those 
in which oxygen is found, these are usually distinguished by the pre¬ 
fixes. 

5. Sulph or Sulplio, Hydr, or Hydro. The composition of acids 
formed by the combination of sulphur or hydrogen (without oxygen) 
with other elements is expressed by the foregoing prefixes, the terminals 
ous and ic being also employed, in the case of the sulphur compounds, 
to indicate the proportions of sulphur relatively present. In the case of 
hydrogen such terminations are not needed, inasmuch as only one acid 
is formed by the union of an element with hydrogen. 

Fortunately these irregular compounds are of comparatively little 
importance to the readers of this work, for whom the naming of ternary 
compounds may be condensed as follows: 

1 . The names of all inorganic, ternary compounds end either in ate, 
or ite. 

2. All bases are ccdled hydrates, and their positive elements take the 
termination ous, or ic according to their valence. 

3. All acids and salts take the terminations ate or ite, according to 


INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 


131 


the valence of their negative element —other .than oxygen. The methods 
of estimating this valence are given on page 128. 

What is said above applies only to the naming of inorganic chemical 
compounds, for the nomenclature of organic chemistry is somewhat dif¬ 
ferent from that which we have been considering. Not that organic 
compounds differ in chemical affinity from inorganic. The same power 
of chemism binds the atoms together in either case; and it is only as a 
matter of convenience that this division into organic and inorganic com¬ 
pounds is adopted. The number of the compounds containing carbon 
is so greatly in excess of all others known to chemists, that they are gen¬ 
erally discussed by themselves. Roughly speaking, then, all the com¬ 
pounds containing carbon may be grouped together under the head of 
organic chemistry and all others under inorganic chemistry. The inor¬ 
ganic salts normally found in the human body are comparatively few in 
number, and as a rule pass through the system unchanged. The organic 
on the other hand are legion in number, and suffer the most varied meta¬ 
morphoses. The more important of these we shall endeavor to take up 
in the present section, beginning with 

THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 

1. Water. 

2. Gases : Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, Marsh 
Gas, Sulphuretted Hydrogen. 

3. Salts: Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, Ammonium Chlo¬ 
ride, Calcium Fluoride, Sodium Carbonate, Potassium Carbonate, Amo- 
nium Carbonate, Calcium Carbonate, Magnesium Carbonate, Sodium 
Phosphate, Potassium Phosphate, Calcium Phosphate, Magnesium Phos¬ 
phate, Ammonio-Magnesium Phosphate, Ammonio-Sodium Phosphate, 
Nitrate of Ammonia, Ammonium Sulphate, Alkaline Sulphates, Calci¬ 
um Sulphate. 

4. Free Acids : Hydrochloric Acid, Sulphuric Acid. 

5. Silicon, Iron, Manganese, Copper, Lead. 

The exact part each of these acts in the body is not yet definitely 
known ; in fact it is not yet even known in what combinations the 
members of the last group are found in the body. But it is known 
wherever cell formation takes place in the body there certain of the inor¬ 
ganic salts are necessary. Calcium phosphate, for instance, is not only 
necessary for the development of bone but of all albuminoid tissues. 
Sodium chloride is always found where cell activity is great, and the ex¬ 
change of inorganic gases has already been alluded to under the sub¬ 
ject of respiration. As far as possible we shall endeavor to give under 
each salt the ways in which it enters and leaves the body, and the part 


132 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


it serves while there. In quantity, the most important of all these 
inorganic compounds is 

WATER. 

Long ago the human body was defined as forty-five pounds of solid 
matter diffused through five and one-half pails of water. This is not 
exact, for careful estimations show that fifty-nine per cent of the 
whole body is water. As appears in the annexed table its percentage 
varies from two parts in a thousand in the enamel of the teeth to 995 in 
the perspiration. 


PARTS IN A THOUSAND OF WATER AND SOLIDS. (BeSClUeZ.) 



Water. 

Solids. 


Water. 

Solids. 

Enamel of the teeth... 

... 2 

998 

Nerves. 

.780 

220 

Teeth. 

... 100 

900 

Blood. 

. 791 

209 

Bones., 

... 220 

780 

Cellular tissue. 

. 796 

204 

Fat. 

... 299 

701 

Kidneys. 

.827 

173 

Elastic tissue. 

... 496 

504 

Bile. 

. 864 

136 

Cartilage. 

... 550 

450 

Milk. . .. 

891 

109 

Liver. 

... 693 

307 

Chyle.. 

. 928 

72 

Spinal cord. 

... 667 

333 

Mucus. 

. 934 

66 

Skin. 

... 720 

280 

Lymph. 

..-983 

17 

Brain. 

... 750 

250 

Spinal fluid. 

. 988 

12 

Muscles. 

... 757 

243 

Saliva. 

. 995 

5 

Spleen ... . 

... 758 

242 

Sweat. 

. 998 

2 


If therefore all the water could be extracted from a body it would 
weigh less than half of what it does during life, and if kept from mois¬ 
ture it might be preserved almost indefinitely. Buckland in his “ Curi¬ 
osities of Natural History” tells the following story: 

“In the College of Surgeons is the dried body of a poor boy, that 
was found bricked up in a vault in a London church. This boy was 
about twelve years of age. He was found erect, with his clothes on, in 
a vault underneath St. BotolplTs, Aldgate, old church, in the year 1742; 
and is supposed to have been shut in during the plague in London, in 
1065, as the vault had not been opened since that period till it was 
pulled down. This body weighs only eighteen pounds.” 

As might be expected, the proportion of water in the tissues of the 
new born is larger than in the adult, both as a whole and in their indi¬ 
vidual parts. Curiously enough too, there are certain organs in the 
body whose percentage of water is larger than the fluids circulating 
through them. (See kidneys and blood.) Hence the water in these organs 
must play another part than it does in the fluids where it performs chiefly 
the part of a solvent, and their consistence depends less on their water 
than on the substances which it holds in solution; so that we may find 
fluids in the body thicker than blood which will yet show a larger pro¬ 
portion of wafer. The water in the solid parts of the body is held there 


























WATER. 


133 

very much after the same fashion as is water of crystallization in the 
mineral .kingdom, and comes mainly from drink and food. All 
observers are agreed that in addition, a small quantity of water is formed 
in the tissues undoubtedly partly from the excess of oxygen taken into 
lungs over what is necessary to form carbonic dioxide (10 to 25 per cent.), 
and also from the oxidation of the hydrogen contained in the tissues whose 
end products are water and carbonic acid. Fats are very rich in water; and 
as they disappear during lack of food it is possible that we find here an 
explanation of the source from Avhich hibernating animals obtain their 
fluids during their protracted sleep. About half of the water excreted 
from the body passes off by the kidneys, the remainder by the skin and 
in the expired air. Water is one of the necessities of life for the follow¬ 
ing reasons, viz.: 

1 . It is the general solvent of the substances contained in the tissues 
of the body, and hence necessary for their proper diffusion. 

2 . Water is imbibed by all the tissues; and to this fact is due their 
elasticity, their expansibility, their transparency, and permeability to 
electrical currents. 

3. The watery vapor arising from the lungs and skin continually 
passes from the body until the surrounding atmosphere becomes saturated 
with moisture. In this way the evaporation of water cools the body, and, 
in a measure, acts as a heat regulator. 

Thirst is the cry of the system for fluids to supply the lack of those 
that are continually passing away by the lungs, skin and kidneys. (See 
page 84.) Whatever increases excretion, increases thirst especially any¬ 
thing that removes rapidly the watery vapor from the surface of the 
lungs, as speaking, singing and blowing of musical instruments. Anger 
also increases thirst, and any highly spiced or salty food does the same. 
This arises from such food requiring much fluid for its solution, which 
quickly uses up the saliva and gastric juice; and also because it acts as 
indirect stimulus to the upper part of the digestive tract, and lastly be¬ 
cause their excretion from the blood can only take place in combination 
with much water. The same reason applies to many drinks such as tea, 
coffee, brandy, etc. The warmer and dryer the air, the greater the need 
of fluids, hence the greater use of drinks in the tropics than in Northern 
climates. And whenever there is much perspiration there is pressing 
need to drink much water to supply that taken away by evaporation. 
The Swansea copper-furnace man is exposed to great changes of temper¬ 
ature; a thermometer at his chest denotes 120 degrees, one on his back 
60 degrees or 70 degrees. After two hours exposure to the scorching 
blaze, he retires to the open air to cool himself, and to drink. His drink 
is generally water, two or three gallons m twelve hours, but then he 
perspires six hundred gallons in the year before his furnace. Yet Dr. 


134 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE IIUMAH BODY. 


Williams reports that he is “ a merry fellow, who lives to a good old 
age, as hale, florid, and corpulent as his neighbors.” When steam 
vessels are voyaging in the tropics, the heat of the engine-room com¬ 
bined with the temperature of the air is so overpowering that the stokers 
and others have free access to an unlimited supply of iced water in 
which oatmeal has been sprinkled; the drinkers say this oatmeal prevents 
so much water disturbing the stomach, and experience in these matters 
generally leads to right conclusions. If the men had not this water they * 
would not be able to withstand the evaporation, and the heat would kill 
them. The human skin is in itself a great absorber of water, and sailors 
exposed in the open sea without fresh water, find their thirst relieved by 
application to their bodies of cloths wet with salt water, whereas if they 
drank the same their suffering would be unbearable. 

Thirst also attends the ascent of high mountains, being there due 
to both an increase of perspiration and the dryness of the air. Thirst is 
more pressing in its demands than the lack of solid food; for it expresses 
a demand of the system for fluids that is attended by a most distressing 
dryness of the mouth and pliarnyx, which, however, can be relieved by 
injections into the veins or rectum equally well as by drinking, and 
even copious baths may accomplish it to some extent. Dilute acids are 
valuable in relieving thirst. Thirst, then, is a nervous phenomenon 
produced by deficiency of water in the blood, and also artificially by 
section of the vagi nerves or paralysis of the lower part of the oesopha¬ 
gus whereby the saliva no longer reaches the stomach but is vomited 
after a time. The chemistry of water in reference to digestion will later 
be discussed under its appropriate head; but before passing to a consider¬ 
ation of the gaseous constituents of the human body this would be as 
favorable a place as any to consider the subject in general of 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

What do we understand by specific gravity? Simply, the relative 
weight of equal volumes of two different substances. And since it is 
necessary to agree upon one substance as a uniform standard, with 
which all other (solid or liquid) bodies can be compared, pure water has 
been chosen as such standard; and no matter what the actual value of the 
other substance may be, the weight of this volume is always calculated 
or determined in figures which refer to one part, or to one thousand parts 
of water. Supposing a certain measure full of water should hold exactly 
1,000 grains of the latter, and the same measure, when afterwards filled 
with another liquid, should hold exactly 2,000 grains of the latter liquid, 
then its specific gravity would be double that of water. Supposing the 
same measure should only hold 500 grains of another liquid, the specific 
gravity of the latter would then be only one-half of that of water. The 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 


135 


specific gravity therefore, is a figure which expresses how much greater or 
hoiv much smaller is the weight of a given volume of a substance compared 
with the same volume of water. The arithmetical operation by which it 
is determined hoiv much greater or how much smaller one volume is than 
another, is performed by division. If we want to know how much larger 
12 is than 4, we divide 12 by 4 and obtain as answer, 3. That is, 12 is 
three times as large as 4. We, therefore, have the rule: To find 'the 
specific gravity, divide the iveight of a given volume of a substance (as 
ascertained by weighing it in air) by the weight of the same volume of 
water. It is not an easy matter, or at least not always convenient to 
ascertain, experimentally, the exact weight of an equal volume of water. 
It may he accomplished approximately, providing the substance is not 
soluble in water, by such devices as the following: 

1. Immerse the body in a measured volume of pure water (at the 
proper temperature) contained in an accurately graduated cylinder or 
burette, and observe the increase of volume. The weight of this increase, 
which may be easily calculated, is the figure sought. 

2. Into a vessel provided with a lateral outlet, pour water until the 
latter begins to flow from the outlet. When all that can flow or can 
drip out has passed, place a weighed beaker under the outlet, and 
cautiously and slowly immerse the solid in the water, when it will cause 
a volume of water equal to its own, to flow into the beaker in which it 
then may be weighed. 

Neither of these methods, however, furnishes as accurate results as 
the indirect method derived from the physical law (first observed by 
Archimedes), viz.: 

“A body immersed in a liquid loses as much weight as its own bulk 
of that liquid weighs.” 

Therefore, if we weigh the body while immersed in water, it will 
weigh less by precisely the weight of its own volume of water. Deduct¬ 
ing, therefore, the weight of the body when immersed, from its weight 
in air, we find the weight of an equal volume of water. Or, to state it 
inversely, the weight of an equal volume of water is found for a solid 
body, by deducting its weight when immersed in water from its weight 
in air. Or, in still other words, the weight of an equal volume of water 
is the same thing as the loss of weight of the substance in water. Let 
us now substitute this latter expression (or value) in the rule above 
quoted, and the rule becomes: 

To find the specific gravity— 

3. Divide the iveight of the given volume of a substance (as ascertained 
by its weight in air) by the loss of iveight in water (as ascertained by 
weighing it under water and deducting this weight from the former.) 

The rule may be extended thus: 


136 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


1. Bodies which float at any level in water displace their own weight 
and their own bulk of water. 

2. Bodies which float on the surface of water displace their own 
weight and less than their own volume of water. 

3. Bodies which sink in water displace their own volume but less . 
their own weight of water. 

Liquids require only that they should be weighed in a vessel of con¬ 
venient size and known weight, and compared with the weight of the 
contents of the same vessel filled with water. For this purpose what is 
known as a specific-gravity bottle is used, or one which contains exactly 
1,000 grains of water at ordinary temperatures. 

Gases are usually compared with an equal bulk of air to obtain their 
specific gravity. The theory of this is the same as that used for obtain¬ 
ing the specific gravity of liquids previously described; but its practical 
application is not a little difficult as it requires glass globes so made that 
they can be weighed just full of air, then emptied by an air pump of all 
air, and accurately weighed, and then filled with the pure gas whose 
specific gravity is desired. The weight of the gas thus obtained, divided 
by the weight of the same bulk of air will give the specific gravity of 
the gas. 

THE GASEOUS CONSTITUENTS 

of the human body are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbonic dioxide, 
marsh gas, and sulphuretted hydrogen. The physical properties of the 
first three of these may be found on page 111. 

1. Oxygen, as already been said, on page 65, enters the organism with 
the inspired air and is quickly absorbed by the blood, not chiefly from 
atmospheric pressure but entering into feeble chemical combination. 
Exactly what this combination is, will be discussed more fully under the 
subject of the chemistry of the blood corpuscles; for Berzelius long ago 
observed that the blood serum without the corpuscles, absorbs but very 
little oxygen. (See Haemoglobin.) 

Excretion : But a portion of the oxygen taken into the body escapes 
with the expired air, the rest enters into various chemical combinations 
and, as a rule, at last leaves the body as water or carbonic acid gas. A 
full description of all the steps in these combinations would be that of 
the functions of all of the parts of the body, and belong more properly 
to physiology than the present work. 

One of the more important functions of the oxygen taken into the 
blood is the heat produced by its combination with, or combustion of the 
tissues no longer of use to the body. Recent experiments show that this is 
under the control of the sympathetic nervous system (see page 59), 
without whose regulation the body would be constantly exposed to alter¬ 
nation of heat and chill, such as accompanies disease. Hence, a man in 


GASES OF THE BODY. 


137 


health, and neither gaining nor losing flesh, is incessantly oxidating and 
wasting away, and periodically making good the loss. “ So that if he 
cow Id be confined in the scale-pan of a delicate spring balance, like that 
used for weighing letters, in his average condition, the scale-pan would 
descend at every meal and ascend in the intervals, oscillating to equal 
distances on each side of the average position, which would never be 
maintained for longer than a few minutes. There is, therefore, no such 
thing as a stationary condition of the weight of the body; and what we 
call such, is simply a condition of variation within narrow limits—a con¬ 
dition in which the gains and losses of the numerous daily transactions 
of the economy balance one another.” Death puts a stop to this process 
of combustion, so that the gradual cooling of the body is one of the surest 
proofs of death. (See page 95.) Where and how the oxidation of the 
various tissues takes place, we shall endeavor to show in the appropriate 
places; particularly the rapid oxidation (or putrefaction) which takes 
place after death, when, as Huxley says, the forces of the inorganic world 
no longer remain the servants but become the masters of the body; and 
“ oxygen no longer the sweeper of the living organism becomes the lord 
of the dead body.” 

2. Hydrogen described on page 110 in its free or uncombined condition 
is found only in very small quantities in the body; though as maybe seen 
from the table on page 113 it constitutes a large proportion of the same in 
its combinations, chiefly water, of which it makes up one ninth part by 
weight. Free hydrogen is found to a very small amount in expired air; 
and in larger quantity in the gaseous contents of the intestines and 
stomach, especially after a milk diet. The origin of the free hydrogen 
in the body has not been ascertained with certainty; but it is well settled, 
that it is a product of chemical decomposition analgous to butyric acid 
fermentation. It escapes from the intestines, and it is one of the gases 
given off with the perspiration. 

3. Nitrogen has already been described on page 116 and, as the chief 
constituent of the atmosphere, it finds its way where ever that does in 
the body; hence we find it in the lungs, blood and among the gases of 
the intestines. In the lungs and air passages nitrogen is found in the 
gaseous condition. In the blood it is absorbed, but whether this is done 
through the blood serum or the corpuscles can not as yet be decided. 
The nitrogen found in the stomach comes in part from air swallowed 
with the food; but, as more is found in the large than in the small intes¬ 
tines, it must find its way there either, from the blood or from chemical 
decomposition. It is mainly excreted from the kidneys, although slight 
excretion of nitrogen takes place from the skin. The physiology of 
nitrogen is, as yet, entirely unknown, for it seems to act only a negative 
part in the economy. 


138 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN RUDY. 


(4) CARBONIC ANHYDRIDE. 

Synonyms: Carbonic acicl or Carbonic acid gas, Carbonic Dioxide, 
Mephitic air, Hepatic air, Choice damp, iv Fixed air, Gas sylves- 
tre . Formula; C0 2 or graphically 0=0=0. Molecular weight, 44. 

100 cubic inches weighs 47.44 grains. 

Carbonic anhydride, as is well-known, is a colorless gas without odor 
when largely mixed with air, but irritating and pungent when the mix¬ 
ture is over five per cent. The undiluted gas kills instantly by spasm of 
the glottis, and even when well diluted it has well marked poisonous 
properties. Carbonic anhydride is twenty-two times heavier than hydro¬ 
gen; and can be liquefied under sufficient cold and pressure to a colorless 
liquid, which freezes by its own evaporation to a snow white solid. The 
pure gas instantly extinguishes fire, but a taper will burn in an atmos¬ 
phere that is fatal to life. Traces of carbonic anhydride are always 
found in the atmosphere, and it is also an invariable constituent of the 
mixture of gases found in the lungs and intestines. Being readily 
soluble in water (volume for volume) it is always found in the blood and 
most of the animal fluids. Its presence in the blood, and its danger to 
the economy when accumulated there, has already been referred to under 
the subject of the circulation of the blood (page 65) and will be still 
further discussed in connection with the chemistry of the blood. Ex¬ 
periments seem to show that the presence of phosphate of soda 
(Na 2 HP0 4 ) in the serum of the blood aids largely in the solution of 
carbonic dioxide in the same. Carbonic anhydride, it should be remem¬ 
bered, is the final product of many of the retrograde metamorphoses of 
the tissues of the body; whence reabsorbed by the properties of the 
blood and excreted chiefly through the lungs (see respiration), though 
to small extent, also, through the skin and from the intestines. The 
toxic effects of carbonic anhydride when retained in the blood may be 
found under the head of poisoning from the vapor from charcoal (see 
poisons) where it jmoperly belongs. 

(5) MARSH GAS. 

Synonyms: Methane, Hydrogen, Mono¬ 
carbide, Light Carburetted Hydrogen. 

Atomic iv eight, 16. Formulae CII\ or 
Specific gravity 0.563. 100 cubic inches, 
weight 17.37 grams. 

Properties. A colorless transparent gas, next lightest to hydrogen, 
hence known as light carburetted hydrogen, to distinguish it from other 
compounds Of hydrogen and carbon. Called marsh gas for the reason, 
that it forms spontaneously in decaying leaves covered with water. It 


Ii 

H—C—II 

i 

H 


GASES OF THE BODY. 


139 


extinguishes flame, but is itself very combustible, burning with a feeble 
yellow flame, and is explosive when mixed with oxygen or air. Marsh 
gas is found in small quantities in the animal organism. According to 
Regnault traces are found in the expired air and in somewhat larger 
quantities in the gases of the larger intestine. Chevreul found 5.5 per 
cent to 11.6 percent in the colon; and other observers in the intestinal 
gases of the lower animals, especially in dogs fed upon flesh and sugar 
or starch. Leguminous diet largely increases its quantity (55.9 per cent), 
while an exclusively milk diet very greatly decreases it, or causes it to 
entirely disappear. Bally observed its formation in copious amount in a 
case of cellular emphysema, but what its origin was in that case is 
entirely unknown. 

(6) SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 

Synonyms: Hydrogen sulphide, hydro sulphuric acid, sulphydric acid. 
Molecular weight, Su £. Formula H 2 S or H — S — H. Solid at 85.5°. 

Properties: Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colorless gas with the odor of 
rotten eggs, very fetid and poisonous when inhaled, one part to 1000 
being sufficient to kill dogs. It is a feebly acid gas, and is slightly combus¬ 
tible, and can be made to explode when mixed in the proper proportions 
with oxygen. Sulphuretted hydrogen is an accidental constituent of the 
body, although Regnault claimed that he found traces of this gas in the 
breath. In such cases it comes, probably, not from the lungs, but from 
the stomach, from whence it also finds its way into the intestines. Ac¬ 
cording to several observers, carbonic and sulphuretted hydrogen are the 
chief gases arising from the fermentation of a meat diet in the larger 
intestines. The latter gas passes very rapidly by diffusion into the 
blood. The origin of this gas in the body is somewhat uncertain; but 
most likely it comes from the decomposition of albuminoid foods or bile, 
which contain a comparatively large percentage of sulphur. 

Sulphuretted hydrogen concludes the list of the normal gases of the 
body, and it should be remembered that, to a certain extent, all of these 
gases are dissolved in the animal fluids. 

None of the inorganic constituents during their stay in the body, 
remain in the same condition; so that Besanez lays it down as a gen¬ 
eral law, that the inorganic salts enter the body in solution, are taken up 
by the tissues, and on the breaking down of these tissues return to their 
fluid condition again. In addition to water (see pages 132-134) we know 
about thirty of these, viz. : 

(2) SODIUM CHLORIDE. 

Synonyms: Common Salt, Chloride of Soda, Muriate of Soda. For¬ 
mula NaCl. Molecular weight, 58.50. 


140 


THE CHEMISTRY OE THE HUMAN BODY. 


The properties of common salt are too well known to need a descrip¬ 
tion here. (See Antiseptics and Disinfectants.) 

Next to water, salt is the most widely diffused of the inorganic con¬ 
stituents of the body, being found not only in all of the fluids, but also 
in all of the organs and tissues of the body except the enamel of the 
teeth. Its presence in the blood serum appears to preserve the integrity 
of the blood corpuscles; and it is claimed that its percentage in the blood 
is nearly invariable, without regard to the amount taken in food. The 
greater part of the salt is contained in the serum, for the corpuscles 
contain but very little. Chyle, lymph and egg albumen contain con¬ 
siderable quantities, while curiously enough the flesh-juice and the 
yelk of the egg contain a minimum. Saliva, gastric juice, mucus, 
pus, and exudates are remarkable for the amount of salt they contain. 
Salt finds its way into the body in solution, for cooking extracts it from 
the tissues in which it is contained; so that the quantity of salt taken into 
the body depends upon the amount of food taken and the salt it con¬ 
tains, either naturally or as it has been added for condiment. Chloride 
of sodium leaves the body by the urine, feces, nasal and buccal mucus 
and the perspiration, the largest part leaving the body by the urine, in 
which, from an adult of normal weight, pass about 170 to 180 grains in 
the twenty-four hours. Barral’s experiments seem to show that the 
quantity of salt excreted is always less than that taken by the food. 
About a fifth is lost in this way, and is supposed to undergo decomposi¬ 
tion in the body. Possibly the free hydrochloric acid of the gastric 
juice and the sodium salts found in the bile originate from this decom¬ 
position of salt within the body. Recent observations show that salt 
increases the albuminoid changes of the system and increases the cir¬ 
culation of fluids through the cells. Water containing salt is more 
quickly absorbed and again excreted through the kidneys, unless the 
water contains more salt than the blood, when it acts as a laxative and 
passes off by the bowels. The use of salt with the food assists digestion, 
especially in the case of the herbivora whose food does not without ad¬ 
ditional salt supply them with sufficient sodium or chlorine. 

(3) POTASSIUM CHLORIDE. 

Synonym: Chloride of Potash. Formula KCl . Molecular weight, 
7J/..5. 

Properties: Closely resembles common salt in color, taste and crystal¬ 
lization. 

Origin: Thought by some to arise from a decomposition of the phos¬ 
phate of potassium in blood by chloride of sodium, thus: 

K 2 HP V 0 4 +2NaCl=Na2H 1 pbr+2KCl. 1 

Chloride of potassium acts as the complement of chloride of sodium 


INORGANIC CHLORIDES. 


141 


in the body, for where one is found the other as a rule is not; for in¬ 
stance, chloride of potash is the chloride of the muscles, and chloride of 
sodium that of the blood serum. Like common salt from its ready 
solubility it always enters the body in solution, and is widely diffused but 
less important than chloride of sodium. It is chiefly found in the 
muscles, nerve tissue, blood (corpuscles) and gland secretions, and 
wherever is cell activity. It it excreted in the urine, saliva and mucus. 
Potassium chloride enters the body with the food, but Besanez thinks 
not as a chloride of potassium but as its phosphate, which subsequently 
undergoes decomposition. (See page 140.) Curiously enough potassium 
chloride injected into the circulation produces paralysis of muscular 
fiber; and muscles and nerves soaked in a solution of the same lose their 
irritability, while this same salt is one of the ingredients of normal 
muscle juice. Excretion of potassium chloride takes place, mainly, 
through the salivary glands, especially during salivation, when six times 
as much of the potassium salt as of the sodium is thus carried from the 
body and vice versa salivation follows poisoning from potassium salts. 

(4) AMMONIUM CHLORIDE. 

Synonyms: Chloride of Ammonia , Sal-ammoniac , Hydrochlorate of 
Ammonia , Muriate of Ammonia. II 

i 

Formula: (Am 1 )Cl., or graphically H— N— C1=(NH jci. 

Molecular weight=53.4 | 

Properties: It is a white, odorless HH 

solid, with a saline, pungent taste, very soluble in water (1 to 3) and 
slightly so in alcohol. Becomes volatilized without first fusing. 

Phys. Cliern . The presence of ammonium chloride in the gastric juice 
of the sheep and dog is well attested, and there is no doubt that it is 
present to small amounts in the secretions and excretions of the body. 
Whether it enters the body with the food, or otherwise, or is produced 
by chemical decomposition within the organism, is not definitely settled, 
but the probability lies with the latter. It is excreted chiefly by the 
urine and perspiration. Its use within the body is very slight, if any. 

(5) CALCIUM FLUORIDE. 

Synonym: Fluoride of lime. Formula , CaF % . Molecular iveight, 78. 

Small quantities of calcium fluoride are found in the bones and teeth, 
chiefly in the enamel of the latter. It is also found in very minute 
traces in the milk and brain tissues, but from which of the foods it finds 
its way into the body, or what its physiological significance is, is, as yet, 
entirely unknown. 

(0 and" 7) sodium carbonates. 

(1) Normal carbonate of soda=Na 2 C0 3 

(2) Bi, or hydrogen Carbonate=NaHC 0 3 = Na—0—C—0—H 


0 


U2 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


Both of the carbonates of soda (see page 141) are found in considerable 
quantities in the ash of organic compounds where they are formed, 
largely from the burning of the carbon compounds; but there is no 
doubt that they also exist normally in certain of the animal fluids, and 
in the blood and bone of the herbivora, and, in small amounts, in 
the blood of the omnivora. During the administration of the alkalies 
they also appear to a considerable degree in human urine, as well as 
after the administration of the carbonates, or vegetable acids (citrates, 
etc.). 

There can be but little doubt on theoretical grounds that carbonate 
of soda exists in the blood, but its isolation has not been successfully 
accomplished. The carbonates doubtless have very much to do with 
giving the fluids of the body their alkaline reaction being readily soluble 
in water. A solution of normal carbonate of soda behaves with carbonic 
acid gas exactly like the serum of the blood, combining with part of the 
gas to form a bicarbonate and absorbing the gas set free according to 
• the laws of absorption of gases. The carbonates enter the body partly 
with the food and drink and partly, are formed within the economy. 
The free use of fruits, such as strawberries, apples and certain vegetables 
cause the normal acid urine of man to become alkaline from the citric, 
malic, and tartaric acids contained in these fruits since the salts of these 
acids become transformed into carbonates in the system even if they are 
injected into the bowels or veins. 

As has already been said, part of these carbonates are excreted by the 
urine, a part is also decomposed in' the body and the carbonic acid set 
free by the lungs. The purpose served by their stay in the economy will 
be further dwelt upon in speaking of the blood, whose power of oxidation 
depends largely upon the presence of these carbonates in its serum, for 
it is well known that many organic compounds oxidize more readily in 
the presence of an alkali; such for instance are gallic and pyrogallic 
acids. Similarly, haemoglobin, the coloring matter of the blood, when 
dissolved in an alkaline solution remains unaltered for months, or so long 
as it is kept from the air, but immediately when oxygen is admitted, it i& 
absorbed and the color of the blood destroyed, and the same is true of 
many other coloring matters of the body. Very likely the alkalies also 
assist in the saponification of the fats and their further oxidation, and it 
is well known that albumen is soluble in alkaline solutions from which it 
is precipitated by the addition of a weak acid solution. 

8. POTASSIUM CARBONATE. 

Synonyms: Normal potassium carbonate, carbonate of potash. For¬ 
mula, K 2 C0 3 . Molecular iveight, 99. 

Properties: As ordinarily seen is a white, coarse, granular powder. 


ALKALINE CARBONATES. 


143 


of a nauseous, alkaline taste. It is very soluble in water and deliquescent 
on exposure to air. 

Pliys. Chem. Carbonate of potash is found in the blood and urine of the 
herbivora and in the urine of man when living on a vegetable diet. All 
that has been said concerning the absorption, excretion and functions of 
the carbonates of soda apply equally well to the carbonate of potash. 


(9 and 10) ammonia carbonates. 


Ammonium is one of the compound radicals of chemistry having the 

v i 

formula (Am) or (NH 4 ) and consequently, a valence of one. It is a 
monad positive radical taking the same place as the positive monad 
metals, potassium or sodium and hence we have the same carbonates of 
ammonium as we have of sodium, viz.: ( a) The bicarbonate of ammonia. 
(b) AmHC0 3 . The normal carbonate of ammonia. Am 2 C0 3 . 

Properties: Normal carbonate of ammonia probably exists only in 
solution, and what is known as carbonate of ammonia in the shops is a 
mixture of carbonates of ammonia with the complex formula of 2 (H 4 N 
03C0 8 ), which may be graphically expressed as follows: 


*■{ 


H 


0 


N—0—C—0 

h- ! ! 

h n h c=o 

'N—0—C—0 

H ~l II 

H 0 


> 


=2 (NH 4 )03C0 2 . 




This occurs in whitish, transparent masses, which can be readily 
volatilized by heat, with a pungent, ammoniacal odor and a sharp, acrid 
taste. Exposure to the air causes the mass to lose its transparency, be¬ 
coming white, opaque and crumbly. By giving off ammonia and car¬ 
bonic dioxide gas it becomes converted into the bicarbonate which is very 


similar in appearance. 

Pliys. Chem. Ammonia carbonates are sure to be found among 
the products of animal decomposition so that the blood in uraemia and 
cholera contains ammonia carbonate, and in these cases it undoubtedly 
arises from the decomposition, of urea. Fresh urine contains car¬ 
bonate of ammonia only during disease, or when the water is long 
kept in the bladder where the vesical mucus soon brings about de¬ 
composition and breaking up of urea by the addition of water into 
carbonate of ammonia thus: 


NH 2 — CO—NH3+ 8 H 3 0=(Nn;) 2 0 3 C0, or AM 2 C0 3 
(ammonium carbonate). In sickness ammonium carbonate has also been 
observed in the stomach secretions. 


IV 






144 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


(11) AMMONIA NITRATE (NH 4 ) 0]S T 0 3 . 

According to Schonbein traces of this salt can be found in the saliva 
and nasal mucus. The same observer has also found it in the urine. 

(12) CALCIUM CARBONATE. 

ii 

Syn.: Carbonate of lime, Chalk. Formula CaCo 3 ; or Ca\0/C0. 

Molecular weight, 100. 

Properties: Chemically pure calcium carbonate is a white, crystalline 
substance, which is almost entirely insoluble in water unless contain¬ 
ing carbonic acid gas. All vertebrated animals contain chalk in 
their bones, where it was deposited while the bones were in a cartilagin¬ 
ous condition. It also constitutes the otoliths of the middle ear and is 
frequently present as a pathological production in the so-called concre¬ 
tions, ossifications and tubercle which has become calcified. The cal¬ 
cium carbonate of the body exist there both in solution and in a solid 
condition. As carbonic acid is necessary for its solution out of the body, 
it is probable that it serves the same purpose within it, where, as has 
already been noted, it is one of the most frequent end products of decom¬ 
position. Solid carbonate of lime is deposited both in the amorphous 
and crystallized condition; concretions are usually unformed. 

Calcium carbonate enters the body both as normal carbonate in 
drinking water and as bicarbonate in food, and it is still in dispute 
whether or not calcium carbonate may not be formed by the reaction of 
the alkaline carbonates on the calcium salts in certain conditions of the 
system. It is very, probable that only a part of the calcium carbonate 
introduced into the organism is directly excreted as such, for experi¬ 
ments outside of the body show that the addition of only a trace of 
sedium phosphate to a solution of calcium carbonate in carbonic acid 
water gives a precipitate of phosphate of lime. Such a reaction 
undoubtedly takes place in the alkaline blood serum. Whether or not 
calcium carbonate takes part anywhere in any vital function is as yet 
unsettled, but there is no doubt that the hardness of the bones may be 
increased by the administration of calcium carbonate and phosphate. 

(13) MAGNESIUM CARBONATE. 

ii 

Formula MgCo 3 . Molecular iveight, 8If. Fuses at a reel heat. Spec¬ 
ific gravity, 1.75. 

"Properties: Carbonate of magnesia is a white solid, not unlike car¬ 
bonate of lime in appearance, and like it soluble in water containing 
carbonic acid gas. 

Physiology: Magnesium carbonate is found with more or less uni¬ 
formity accompanying calcium carbonate in the chalky deposits of the 


CALCIUM PHOSPHATES. 


145 


body; occasionally it is also found in the urinary concretions of man. 
On the whole it is met with only sparingly, although magnesium occurs 
as a phosphate in all vegetable diet. Its action and place in the economy 
is just about the same as calcium carbonate just described. 


(14) CALCIUM PHOSPHATES. 


Synonyms: Phosphate of lime. Bone earth phosphate, (a) Normal 
phosphate , Ca 3 P 2 O s . Molecular weight. 310. (h) Acicl phosphate, 

CaHftPOi. Molecular weight, 236. 


Graphic formula of 


normal phosphate 




n a _ 

Ua_ 0 _ 

n 0 

Ca— 0 — 

n a / 0— 
Ld \0~ 


P=0 

v 

P=0 


► =Ca 3 P 2 0 8 . 


Properties: Calcium phosphate, or bone earth, as it is frequently 
called, is a white, inodorous, tasteless, insoluble powder which enters the 

body with the food, in connection with the phosphates of sodium and 
potassium. 


Phys.: It is without exception found in all the tissues and fluids of 
the body, though only in minute quantities in some. The largest 
amount is found in the bones and teeth; for these contain about two- 
thirds of their weight of calcium phosphate, and large percentages also 
exist in ossifications, incrustations and concretions. In fact the outer 
layers of almost all large urinary calculi are composed of calcium phos¬ 
phate, which also makes up the bulk of mulberry calculi and most of 
those formed about a nucleus. All of the organic tissues, such as 
albumin and its derivates, when burnt after careful isolation, yield a 
small amount of ash, which is composed mainly of calcium phosphate ; 
the only exception to this is elastic tissue. By far the larger part of the 
calcium phosphate in the system exists there as a solid constituent of the 
bones and teeth, from which it may be isolated as bone earth. It is 
found in the solid state in the hair, nails, hoofs, etc. But not alone do all 
the tissues contain this salt, but the animal fluids also. As this salt is 
insoluble in watery fluids we must seek for an explanation of this in 
some soluble combination of calcium phosphate. Such a one would be 
its union with albuminoid matters, in which condition it is freely solu¬ 
ble in water. Moreover, it is known that the certain organic acids as 
lactic, and certain salts, such as chloride of sodium in aqueous solution, 
as well as a watery solution of carbonic acid gas, have the power of dis¬ 
solving somewhat of calcium phosphate. It has already been mentioned 
that the blood contains carbonic dioxide, chloride of sodium and the 
alkaline phosphates, and we find in many of the tissues acid phosphates, 
lactic acid, and other organic acids. Calcium phosphate is found in the 


10 






146 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


urine of omnivora and carnivora as the acid, or biphosphate, which is of 
itself soluble in water. Crystallized normal phosphate is a frequent sed¬ 
iment in urine, and its crystals are not unfrequently met with in the 
pus from carious bones and in certain concretions. The major part of 
the calcium phosphate enters the body with the food, whether it be 
animal or vegetable, though a flesh diet is more favorable for this pur¬ 
pose as it is rich in phosphatie salts. Nursing children receive these 
phosphates from their mother's milk, whose ash shows the presence of 
phosphates. It is probable that a portion of the phosphates are also 
formed within the organism (Besanez). Valentine's investigations show 
that the newly formed bones are rich in calcium carbonate at first, but 
that gradually this is changed into calcium phosphate. 

Since the feces contain the insoluble constituents of the food, it is 
evident that no small amount of calcium phosphate is excreted thus. 
The soluble phosphates are largely excreted by the kidneys, especially in 
the carnivora, where their solution is assisted by the presence of free 
acid in the urine. 

The importance of the phosphate of lime to the bones is evident; for 
their peculiar consistence is due to the combination of this phosphate 
with their gelatinous constituents. (See Bones). The hardness or soft¬ 
ness of the bones, then, depends upon whether or not sufficient calcium 
phosphate is assimilated; and hence it happens that sometimes during 
pregnancy the urine of the mother will show not even a trace of calcium 
phosphate, and that a broken bone in a pregnant mother heals with diffi¬ 
culty. The constant appearance of calcium phosphate in all the tissues, 
and its intimate combination with certain of the tissue constituents, as 
albumen and the substances from which glue can be made, points strong¬ 
ly to the fact that the salt plays an important part in the formation and 
development of all the tissues. 

SODIUM PHOSPHATES. 

(15) Normal Sodium Phosphate, Na 3 P0 4 . (16) Hydro-di-sodic phos¬ 
phate, Na 2 HP0 4 . (17) Dihydro-sodic phosphate, NaH 2 P0 4 . These 
phosphates are so nearly alike in appearance and function that for con¬ 
venience they are grouped together. 

The phosphates of soda are all white solids with a saline taste, solu¬ 
ble in water, but without odor. They readily fuse by heat, but are not 
decomposed. Almost without an exception they are constituents of all 
the tissues and fluids of the body. In the corpuscles the potassium salts 
are found; but in the serum the sodium phosphates predominate, the 
phosphoric acid being in combination with sodium as a base. Careful 
examinations of the ash of the tissues of herbivora and carnivora show 
that the ash from the blood of the herbivora is considerably poorer in 


147 


ALKALINE PHOSPHATES. 

alkaline phosphates than that obtained from the blood of the carnivora, 
and still richer in phosphates is the ash from the blood of animals fed 
upon grain. These phosphates readily enter the organism, from their 
ready solubility in water, especially the acid phosphates. The pyrophos¬ 
phate found in the ash is probably produced there by heat. The hydro- 
di-sodic phosphate, Na 3 TIP0 4 , is the one most widely diffused in the 
economy; and it may be added that, as these phosphates are abstracted 
from the blood, as a rule they appear in the animal fluids which have an 
acid reaction— e. g., the urine, muscle-juice and the parenchymatous 
fluids of certain glands. 

There is very little doubt that the phosphoric acid of the system 
comes from the food; but it is still an unsettled question whether it 
enters the body as phosphates of the alkalies, or whether these are pro¬ 
duced by the decomposition of the phosphates of the alkaline earths. 
This latter is not at all unlikely, from the presence of the phosphates 
of potassium and sodium in the muscle-juice and the other tissues, 
while in the blood we find chloride of sodium and the phosphate of 
soda. 

The excretion of the alkaline phosphates is by preference by the kid¬ 
neys and intestines. Uric, hippuric and sulphuric acid, the last arising 
from the sulphur in the albumen, abstract from these alkaline phosphates, 
part of their base, the remainder of the base remaining united with the 
phosphoric acid, so what was previously an alkaline salt now acquires 
a neutral, or acid reaction; such is the origin of the acid phosphate of 
soda found in the urine. A fluid, rendered acid by phosphoric acid, 
has the property of dissolving the phosphates of calcium and magnesium, 
hence we find all of these salts in the urine of omnivorous animals. 

There can be Jput little doubt that the wide-spread (distribution of the 
phosphates of soda in the organism indicate a physiological importance 
on their part which, however, is not clearly explained; but it is worthy 
of remark, that wherever in the tissues free acids appear, there the acid 
phosphates of the alkalies are met with; this is the more remarkable 
from the fact that the blood contains the basic or neutral alkaline phos¬ 
phates. The explanation of this is found in the fact that in the tissues 
are found organic acids which abstract part of the base of these neutral 
salts, as described above, and convert them into acid salts. In 
short, it should be remembered that all tissue-forming substances con¬ 
tain the phosphates, which they retain with great persistency ; all nutri¬ 
tive fluids contain the alkaline phosphates, and the same are found in 
all transudates, so that it may safely be said with 0. Schmidt that 
all organs in which, later in life, calcium carbonate is deposited, 
contain at first a considerable amount of the phosphatic salts. Fur¬ 
thermore, it has been found that nerves preserve their excitability 

; t 


148 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


well, and for a long time by immersion in a few percent solution of phos¬ 
phoric acid, which may explain its presence in the tissues. 

(18). POTASSIUM PHOSPHATES. 

The three phosphates of potassium, a normal and two acid, are 
formed exactly like the analogous salts of sodium; and are so similar in 
appearance and function that they need no extended description here. As 
a rule they accompany the sodium phosphates, except in the blood 
corpuscles and muscle juice, which are especially rich in the potassium 
phosphates, their acid reaction being due to lactic acid and the acid 
potassium phosphates. Ranke found that the injection of acid potassium 
phosphate into the capillaries of a muscle dimished its excitability, and 
at the same time produced increased susceptibility of the peripheral 
nervous system—phenomena well known to all as accompanying great 
fatigue. 

(19). MAGNESIUM PHOSPHATE. 

Formula: Mg % 2P0±. Molecular weight, 262. (20) Acid phosphate, 

Mg H\2 P 0 4 . 

Properties: May be obtained from wheat and other grain, as small, 
colorless crystals, which are soluble in about 1,000 parts of cold water. 
Magnesium phosphate, like the corresponding salt of lime, is found in 
almost all the tissues and fluids of the body, but usually in much smaller 
quantities. The chief exceptions to this rule are the muscle juice and 
the fluid contained in the thymus gland, where the magnesium phos¬ 
phates greatly exceed the calcium phosphate. Magnesium phosphate 
also is found with the phosphate of lime in various concretions, where it 
sometimes exceeds and sometimes entirely excludes the latter salt; but 
usually the magnesium is in such cases found as the double phosphate of 
magnesium and ammonia, soon to be considered. The bones of the 
herbivora contain more magnesium phosphate than those of the 
carnivora. 

An acid phosphate MgH 4 2P0 4 is often found as a sediment in urine, 
and also in various concretions, in pus, pathological cysts, and in the 
watery effusions of the pleura and pericardium, and on the surface of 
carious bones. Like the phosphate of lime the phosphate of magnesium 
occurs in the body both in solution and in the fixed or solid form, the 
latter being found in the bones, teeth and concretions. Its solution 
takes place in most of the animal fluids, and is assisted by the presence 
of calcium phosphate; its solubility in urine is due to the presence of 
free acid in the same. 

The excretion of magnesium phosphate closely resembles that of cal¬ 
cium phosphate, taking place mainly through the kidneys and in¬ 
testines. 


TRIPLE PHOSPHATES. 


149 


(21). AMMONIO-MAGNESIUM PHOSPHATE. 


Formula: Mg (NH^) PO±. Molecular weight, 137. 

HH 


Graphic formula < 


H. 

H hi-0 \ P A I A 

, r u /0/ P=0 + 6H2 ° 

M S\0/ 


Properties: This salt may be obtained in a white crystalline form by 
precipitation, and is slightly soluble in pure water, but is nearly insolu¬ 
ble in ammoniacal and saline fluids. 

This ammonio-magnesium phosphate is not a normal constituent of 
the body, and yet is very frequently found there. Its most frequent 
occurrence is as a sediment in urine, and almost all urine will deposit 
when it begins to decompose. The same is true of all decomposing dis¬ 
charges from the body, and hence this salt is found in tlfc excrement 
whenever decomposition begins in them. This is the reason these crystals 
are found in the passages of typhoid fever, and whenever there is ulcera¬ 
tion of the intestine; the crystals sometimes being found in the infiltrated 
mesenteric glands themselves. The urine of pregnant women not infre¬ 
quently forms on its surface a film containing numerous crystals of this 
double salt. In vesical calculi and still more frequently in the renal concre¬ 
tions of man and mammals we find this salt usually accompanied with 
calcium phosphate, sometimes also with uric acid, urates and calcium 
oxalate. 

This double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia is formed within the 
body whenever from any cause ammonia comes in contact with normal 
magnesium phosphate; as for instance in the urine when urea breaks up 
into ammonia and water (See page 143); the urine in consequence 
becomes alkaline instead of acid, and a combination of the free ammonia 
with the magnesium phosphate takes place, whereby it is precipitated as 
the double phosphate; and a similar reaction takes place whenever animal 
matter decomposes, for it always at that time sets free ammonia. It can 
hardly be said that this double phosphate has any physiological import¬ 
ance other than its pathology, and the quantity formed in this way is 
generally small. The alkaline reaction of freshly passed urine with its 
sediment of this salt, often mistaken for pus, indicates some lesion of 
the bladder or spinal chord, unless the person is drinking at the time 
some of the alkaline mineral waters, such as Vichy, which will produce 
a similar deposit, and occasionally even a vesical calculus. 

There is a sodio-magnesium phosphate, or, more properly, an 
acid, or bi-sodio-magnesium phosphate, which is also an abnormal 




150 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


product of the organism, but of less frequent occurrence than that just 
described. Like that, it is deposited from putrid urine, or that in which 
the urea is beginning to decompose. Its crystals are columnar and 
slightly soluble in water and acids, and are changed by heat into meta¬ 
phosphate of sodium. Its graphic formula is given below: 


Na(NH 4 )HP0 4 = 

H 

II 


Na—0— 
H — 0— 
HII 

II o 

=N/ 


P=0 


ALKALINE SULPHATES. 

(22-23). Normal Sulphates, Na 2 S0 4 -}-K 2 S0 4 . 

(24-25). Acid Sulphates, KHS0 4 and NaIIS0 4 . 

Properties: The alkaline sulphates closely resemble each other in ap¬ 
pearance and properties being crystalline, soluble and generally having a 
bitter, disagreeable taste. 

Physiology: Small quantities of the alkaline sulphates appear in most 
of the animal fluids and tissues except milk, bile and gastric juice, where 
they are entirely absent. Nevertheless, these will give by incineration 
these sulphates in their ash, for all organic substances which contain 
sulphur produce sulphuric acid by burning, and this displaces the car¬ 
bonic acid of the various carbonates. 

The presence of the soluble sulphates in the urine can easily be proved 
by the use of any of the ordinary reagents. It appears there without the 
destruction of organic matter, so that, with great probability, the alka¬ 
line sulphates exist preformed in the blood. The researches of Bibra 
show the alkaline sulphates present to a considerable extent in the bones 
of fishes and reptiles, but we have no reason to suspect that they .exist in 
the body in other form than in solution. Besanez is decidedly of the 
opinion that the alkaline sulphates are not entirely taken into the body 
from without; but that they are in part produced in the system by the 
oxidation of the constituents of the body which contain sulphur, thus 
forming sulphuric acid ; and this combines with the alkalies and in this 
way produces the alkaline sulphates, so that, at least in small part, the 
alkaline sulphates are the products of retrograde metamorphosis. Their 
excretion naturally takes place mainly through the urine. In health the 
average amount excreted is from twenty-five to thirty-five grains in the 
twenty-four hours, and this amount can be increased not only by the 
introduction of sulphates into the body, but also by the use of any com¬ 
pound containing oxidizable sulphur, or even sulphur itself. The free 
use of meat of any kind also increases the excretion of these sulphates, 
probably from the sulphur in the albuminoids of the flesh. If this sul- 


SULPHATES AND FREE ACIDS. 


151 


phur is oxidized to sulphuric acid, it might also indirectly explain the 
increased acidity of the urine known to be produced in this way. Only 
when taken in large doses are the alkaline sulphates excreted by the 
intestines, for smaller amounts are re-absorbed from the alimentary 
canal. It is also interesting to remember that part of the alkaline sul¬ 
phates remaining in the intestines, may be reduced to the form of the 
sulphides as proven by the greenish black passages of those taking min¬ 
eral water containing both carbonate of iron and the alkaline sulphates, 
the color being due to the formation of the sulphide of iron. 

(26.) CALCIUM SULPHATE. 

ii. 

Formula: Ca SO±. Molecular weight, 138. 

Properties: When crystallized it contains six molecules of water and 
is insoluble in alcohol and dilute acids. When calcined it becomes a 
floury white powder, which eagerly unites with water and is known as 
Plaster of Paris. 

Physiology: It is doubtful whether sulphate of lime is a normal con¬ 
stituent of the higher animals. It has been found in the blood, pan¬ 
creatic juice, excrements and rachitic bones, but only when these have 
been subjected to previous decomposition. It is quite frequently met 
with in the lower animals. 

(%7.) HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HC1.) 

Properties : Hydrogen chloride is really a colorless gas about one- 
fourth heavier than the air (sp. gr. 1.257), but is so readily soluble in 
water, which absorbs at 40° F. 480 times its volume, that this aqueous 
solution is what is usually understood when hydrochloric acid is spoken 
of. Heat again expels the gas from its solution, which fumes in moist 
air or that in which there is free ammonia vapor. (See Poisons.) 

Physiology: There is no doubt that free hydrochloric acid is found 
in the gastric juice of man and the mammals ; and is also found in con¬ 
nection with free sulphuric acid in the saliva of certain snails and other 
animals. The quantity daily secreted by an adult, according to 0. 
Schmidt is about fifty grains. It is quite definitely determined that 
hydrochloric acid is produced in the system from the metallic chlorides, 
especially the chloride of sodium, but just how it is done has not yet 
been explained. 

Hone of the free hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice is excreted as 
such. It is quite probable that the hydrochloric acid in its formation 
from common salt (HaCI) sets free sodium (Ha) which reappears in 
the alkaline bile and pancreatic secretions, which the free hydrochloric 
acid of the gastric juice meets on its passage downwards with the food 
and is again neutralized. There is no reason to doubt that free hydro- 


152 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


chloric acid plays an important part in the chemistry of digestion. This 
is proven by the constant presence of the acid in the gastric fluids ; and 
the fact that a watery solution of gastric mucous membrane will not per¬ 
form artificial digestion until a few drops of acid have been added. 
Hydrochloric acid also increases the power of the gastric juice to dis¬ 
solve the constituents of the food, especially the phosphates. 

(29). sulphuric acid, Id 2 S0 4 . 

Properties: Strong sulphuric acid has a syrupy appearance and fumes 
in moist air. If pure it has neither color nor odor; sp. gr. 1836. It 
is one of the strongest of the corrosive poisons. For its action, see 
poisons. 

Physiology: Free sulphuric acid is found in the secretion of certain 
snails and gasteropods, but up to the present time has not been estab¬ 
lished as a normal constituent of the human body. 

(30). SILICON, IRON, MANGANESE AND COPPER 

are here grouped together because they are all known to be constituents 
of the body, but their combinations are as yet not certainly known. 

SILICON. 

Traces of this can be discovered in the ash of blood, bile, urine and 
eggs, but the largest quantity of it is found in ash of hairs, feathers and 
. excrement, though in the latter case the silicon may come from sand 
accidentally taken into the system. As has already been said, the exact 
combination in which silicon occurs in the body is not yet definitely 
known. Ladenburg’s discoveries of the organic silicon combinations— 
silicon alcohol, silicon propionic acid, etc., has perhaps given us the 
combinations which yield silicon ash on burning. 

The silicon found in the body naturally comes from without, being in 
the first instance, taken with food and drink ; and as might be expected the 
kind of food has much to do with the appearance of the hair and feathers 
in the lower animals; the feathers of birds for instance which are fed upon 
corn, which is rich in silicon, being much finer than those fed upon a 
different diet. We have as yet no accurate observations on the method 
of excretion of the silicon compounds, whether by the urine or else¬ 
where. The urine of the higher mammals contains a trace of silicon, but 
whether this represents the entire amount of silicon excreted has not yet 
been satisfactorily settled. It is probable that the silicon in the excre¬ 
ments is present there from food which has not been properly assimilated. 
What is the physiological import of the traces of silicon found in the 
higher mammals has also not yet been settled definitely; but it certainly 
has about the same relation to feathers that calcium has to bone tissue. 


IRON AND COPPER? 


153 


IRON. 

Iron is par excellence the element of the blood, and especially of the 
corpuscles, as is proven by the red color of the ash from blood. Blood 
serum gives a colorless ash, so it is now pretty definitely settled that the 
iron of the blood is limited to the haemoglobin, which see. So 
noticeable is the amount of iron contained in the blood that the ash of 
any tissue in which blood freely circulates, will give an ash also showing 
the iron color. Iron is also found in the gastric juice, hair, feathers, 
and in the chyle, lymph, bile, gall stones and the black pigment of the 
eyes, and finally the milk and urine contain minute traces. The most 
noticeable quantity of iron is in the blood (0.057 to 100.), so that it would 
be possible to realize Parmentier’s romantic idea of making iron memen¬ 
toes from the metal extracted from the blood after death; provided they 
did not exceed about fifty grains in weight, which careful estimations 
give as the amount of the iron contained in the blood of a man of average 
weight. The entire amount of the iron in the blood is contained in the 
haemoglobin, as has already been noted, and this will be discussed more 
in detail later. The iron in the gastric juice is there probably as a chlo¬ 
ride, though it may also be united with lactic and other organic acids. 
In the spleen iron is found partly as a constituent of an albuminoid 
compound and partly as lactate, acetate and phosphate of iron. 

Iron reaches the body by way of food and drink, and these contain so 
much iron that it always appears in the excrement. In what form iron 
is really excreted from the organism has not been fully investigated. 
Harley succeeded in proving that it is in part excreted by the urine, 
and Young thinks he has done the same in reference to the coloring 
matter of the bile, which he thinks is manufactured from the blood cor¬ 
puscles and consequently contain iron. For the physiological uses of 
iron see haemoglobin. 

Manganese is in nature always found accompanying iron, hence we 
need not be surprised to find traces of this metal in the body in connec¬ 
tion with iron, viz.: in the blood, bile, hair and gall stones, and urinary 
calculi. Its relation to the organism is as yet entirely unknown, both as 
to its combinations and as to any part that it may bear in the functions 
of life. 

COPPER. 

Copper has been found repeatedly in the blood, bile, liver, milk, and 
gall stones of man in small quantities, but apparently there as an acci¬ 
dental constituent, and without any physiological importance. There is 
very little doubt but that the traces of copper that have been found in 
these organs come from food that has been cooked in poorly tinned cop- 


154 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


per vessels; and its appearance in the liver is interesting as showing 
the tendency that metals have when taken into the body to collect in 
the liver and remaining there for a long time. It is a matter of some 
physiological interest to know that the blood of some of the lower ani¬ 
mals and shell fish normally contain copper to a considerable per cent, 
and that the red pigment in the wing feathers of certain birds contains 
nearly six per cent of copper. 


LEAD. 

Traces of lead are occasionally found in the blood, the liver, and 
other organs of man; but like copper are accidental, and from similar 
sources, especially water, which is very prone to contain traces of lead 
from the pipes through which it is conveyed. (See Lead Poisoning.) 

These complete the list of the inorganic constituents of the body 
and brings us to those to which the name of organic has been given. 
See page ooo* No less than eighty of these are known, and to these 
doubtless many more will be added. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 
9. 

10 . 
11 . 
12 . 
' 13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20 . 
21 . 
22 . 

23. 

24. 

25. 

26. 


ORGANIC PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES. 


Benzoic acid. 
Ceratinic acid. 
Cholaic acid. 
Choloidinic acid. 
Cyanuric acid. 
Elaidinic acid. 
Glycocholic acid. 
Hippuric acid. 
Hyocholalic acid. 
Hyocholic acid. 
Lactic acid. 
Leucinic acid. 
Mosic acid. 
Mucosin. 

Palmitic acid. 
Medullic acid. 
Paralactic acid. 
Stearin. 

Taurocliolic acid. 
Uric acid. 
yEthal. 

Albumen. 

Allantoin. 

Alkalialbuminate. 

Alloxantin. 

Alloxan. 


27. Ammon uratate. 

28. Biliprasin. 

29. Bililiumin. 

30. Bilirubin. 

31. Bilifuscin. 

32. Biliverdin. 

33. Calcic lactate. 

34. Casein. 

35. Cerebrin. 

36. Cetin. 

37. Chitin. 

38. Ckolesterin. 

39. Chondrogen. 

40. Dyslysin. 

41. Elaidin. 

42. Blood fibrin. 

43. Elastin. 

44. Fibroin. 

45. Globulin. 

# 46. Glycocoll. 

47. Glycogen. 

48. Glycero-phosphoric acid. 

49. Guanin. 

50. Haematin. 

51. Haemogloblin. 

52. Hypoxanthin. 



ORGANIC PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES. 


155 


58. Inosite. 

54. Ceratin. 

55. Potassium urate. 

56. Creatin. 

57. Ceratine. 

58. Creatinin. 

59. Leucine. 

60. Melanin. 

61. Murexid. 

62. Sodic glycochlolate. 
68. Sodic taurocholate. 

64. Sodic urate. 

65. Olein. 

66. Palmatin. 


67. Pancreatiu. 

68. Pepsin. 

69. Sugar of milk. 

70. Stearin. 

71. Paraglobulin. 
jl2. Syntonin. 

73. Sarcosine. 

74. Ossein. 

75. Tyrosin. 

76. Taurin. 

77. Urea. 

78. Xanthin. 

79. Lecithin. 

80. Paralactate. 


These organic constituents might be taken up one by one as has been 
done with the inorganic, hut the better way, as it seems to the writer, is 
to consider them in groups, or in connection with the various tissues in 
which they are found. Various groupings of these constituents of the 
body have beeii suggested, and one of the most convenient of these is 
the one proposed by Dr. J. C. Dalton, viz.: into three classes of proxi¬ 
mate principles. But first let us clearly understand what a proximate 
principle is, and for this purpose we quote his own language : 

“ A proximate principle is any substance, whether simple or com¬ 
pound, which exists under its own form in the animal fluids, or solids, 
and which can be extracted from them by means which do not destroy 
its chemical properties.” 

According to this definition calcium phosphate, and all of the inor¬ 
ganic compounds thus far discussed, are proximate principles, for each 
may be extracted in its own form from some one or more of the 
animal fluids or solids. The constituent parts of these salts, e. g ., phos¬ 
phorous or calcium, in the compound just mentioned, are not proximate 
principles for the reason that they can only be obtained by the decompo¬ 
sition of the proximate principle. Proximate principles, then, bear about 
the same relation to a body and its chemical elements that brick, mor¬ 
tar and lumber do to a house. None of these are the chemical elements 
from which all things are constructed, and into which the bricks, etc., 
themselves can be resolved ; and yet as we think of the house being built 
of these instead of their chemical elements so we construct in thought 
the human body from its proximate principles. These proximate prin¬ 
ciples as has already been said may be divided into three classes, viz.: 

Class I. Inorganic. Crystallizable and of definite chemical compo¬ 
sition. 

Class II. Crystallizable substances of organic origin , such as sugar, 
gum, etc. 


156 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


Class III. Organic substances which are not crystallizable, and are 
but loosely held together by chemism. 

Class I. has already been fully discussed, beginning with water and 
ending with the sulphates (pp. 132-152). Classes II. and III. perhaps 
can be best studied by a consideration of the various tissues and fluids 
in which they are found. 

CERATINE, ETC. 

Beginning with the outside of the body we find it covered with the 
integument already described (See page 90) as consisting of epithe¬ 
lium, connective tissue, vessel and gland structure and nerves, etc. Epi¬ 
thelial scales (the epidermis), horn, nails and feathers chemically con¬ 
sists largely of a substance to which the name of ceratine has been given 
for the reason that it is easily prepared from horn, which leaves it 
behind after successive washings with boiling water, alcohol, ether, 
dilute muriatic acid, and water again. The residue thus obtained is 
insoluble in alcohol and ether, and only swells up but does not dissolve 
in hot water. When burned it gives off the odor of burnt feathers; 
heated with water in a closed tube it finally dissolves and gives off 
sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Nitric acid first colors it yellow, and if 
long continued converts it into oxalic acid; hydrochloric acid stains it 
purple, and by long continuance, brown, while warm concentrated 
sulphuric acid changes it into a slimy mass, in which under the micro¬ 
scope cells are clearly visible. Concentrated caustic potash has a similar 
effect, and if hydrochloric acid is added to the gelatinous mass the disa¬ 
greeable odor of sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved. It is doubtful 
whether an absolutely pure ceratine has yet been prepared; for there are 
slight chemical differences observed in that obtained from the various 
tissues which contain it; i. e., the ceratine obtained from the epidermis 
is not exactly the same in its proportion of carbon, oxygen, etc., 
as that from the nails ol* hoofs, or wool or hair, or feathers or flesh or 
scales, all of which contain a form of ceratine. The composition of that 
prepared from the epidermis is given below : 


Carbon. 50.28 

Hydrogen.-.. 6.76 

Nitrogen. 17.21 

Oxygen. 25.01 

Sulphur. 74 


100.00 

All these tissues at first appear to consist of nucleated cells, which 
later dry down into dry scales, but chemically no difference can be 
shown between cell membrane, contents or nucleus. Ceratine leaves the 








TYROSIN AND LEUCIN. 


157 


body largely in tlie form of dried and branny epithelium, or as clippings 
of hair and nails. Its use in the body is to protect the softer vascular 
and nervous tissues from mechanical and chemical injury, and as it is a 
poor conductor of heat, it also regulates the heat of the body as well as 
transudation and absorption through the skin. (See Perspiration, etc.) 
Conclriolin is the name given by Fremy to the substance remaining un¬ 
dissolved by the action of potash upon muscle sheathing. It is closely 
allied to, if not identical with ceratine. 

TYROSIN, C 9 H 16 N 0 3 . 

Tyrosin is one of the products of the oxidation of ceratine and is 
easily prepared by boiling horn shaving with dilute sulphuric acid, di¬ 
luting and neutralizing with chalk. Evaporation of the filtrate gives 
crystals of tyrosin, which may be further purified as necessary. Its pure 
crystals are needle-like, often arranged in bundles; and are freely soluble 
in ammonia water and dilute acids, but insoluble in acetic acid, alcohol 
and ether. Tyrosin has neither odor nor taste, but gives off the odor of 
burning feathers when set on fire. It may also be prepared from albu¬ 
men, flesh, fibrin and hair in the same manner as from the nails; and 
exists in the liver, spleen, kidneys, suprarenal capsules, thyroid and sa¬ 
livary glands in various degenerations of these organs. It is also found 
in diseased epidermis, thickened nails, and atheromatous cysts. Tyro¬ 
sin appears in the urine only from degeneration of the liver or kidney. 
It is a normal constituent of some insects. If cochineal be treated with 
boiling water, an amount of tyrosin equal to one-third of one per cent 
of the coachineal is dissolved and crystallizes as the solution cools. Ty¬ 
rosin represents a low state of organization, and if the substance of any 
organ be unduly transformed into tyrosin, the functions of such an 
organ can not long be performed. Consequently, tyrosin in the urine 
is indicative of changes of a very serious nature in the liver or kidneys, 
especially the former. All proteids can, by the action of oxidizing 
agents, yield tyrosin ; but it is generally prepared from horn or hair. 

leucin, C 8 H 13 N0 2 

Is similar in its origin to tyrogin and like it, may be artificially pro¬ 
duced from horn, according to the method given for manufacturing tyro¬ 
sin. Their separation is a matter of some difficulty and the details are 
not of sufficient importance to occupy further space. When pure, leucin 
crystalizes in thin colorless rhombic plates or fine needle-like crystals. 
If the solution contains impurities, the leucin takes the form of brownish 
balls, or disks, which is the form that it is precipitated in from the urine ; 
it is soluable in twenty-seven parts of cold water, and still more so in 
hot, whose solvent power is increased by foreign matters as seen in the 


158 


THE CHEMISTRY OE THE HUMAN RODY. 


urine. Cold and hot alcohol are noor solvents, and chloroform and ether 

X ' 

entirely fail to dissolve it, but it is freely soluble in both alkalies 
and dilute acids. Nitrous acid gas converts an acidulated solution of 
leucin into leucic acid C 0 H 12 O 3 . 


SECRETIONS OF THE SKIN. 


A review of the chemistry of the skin would be imperfect without 
some description of its secretions, which are chiefly from two kinds of 
glands, viz.: sudoriferous and sebaceous. 

The sebaceous glands of the body are found on those parts which are 
well covered with hairs, and also on the face and the generative organs. 
Their function is to furnish a lubricating material for the skin and to 
keep the hairs soft and pliable by nature’s own pomatum, whose compo¬ 
sition is as follows: 


Albuminoid material.. 

Fatty matters. 

Phosphate of lime.... 
Carbonate of lime.... 
Carbonate of magnesia 
Chloride of soda.... ) 
Acetate of soda, etc. j 


358 
368 
200 
* 21 
16 

37 


1000 


The ceruminous glands of the passage to the ears secrete a waxy sub¬ 
stance similar in chemistiy, but more consistent, and having a bitter 
taste and disagreeable odor, possibly to repel insects from finding their 
way into the opening. The Meibomian glands serve a similar purpose 
for the edges of the eye-lids, by their sebaceous secretion preventing the 
tears from continually running over the lids and down the cheeks. 


THE PERSPIRATION. 

The perspiratory glands of the skin are distributed over its entire 
surface, but are most numerous on the anterior parts of the body where 
they are found to the amount of from 500 to 1,000 to the square inch. 
In the sole of the foot and the palm of the hand they are even more 
numerous, for here 2,700 to the square inch have been counted, and it 
has been estimated by careful calculation that the combined length of 
the perspiratory tubes contained in the body is not less than two miles 
and a half. Nearly two pounds avoirdupois of fluid exudes through this 
perspiratory tubing every day, and with heat and exertion, the amount 
is greatly increased. (See Water, page 132.) 

The perspiration is a colorless, watery fluid with a characteristic odor 
and generally an acid reaction. Its average composition is 









PERSPIRATION AND MUCtJS. 


1 5d 


Water . 995.00 

Animal matter with lime.10 

Soluble sulphates, etc. 1.05 

Soluble chlorides, etc. 2.40 

Acetates, lactates, etc. 1.45 


1000.00 

The chief purpose of the perspiration is to regulate the temperature 
of the body, although to some extent it serves also to carry otf excremen- 
titious matters, especially when for any reason the kidneys become 
disabled. 

MUCUS. 

Mucous membrane , or the reflection of the skin which lines the 
cavities of the body, is copiously provided with glands to secrete the 
fluids necessary to keep it moist and pliable. The name, mucus, has 
been given this. It is secreted by numerous, tiny glands which lie near 
the surface of the mucous membrane. Healthy mucus differs somewhat 
with the surface by which it is secreted, but differs from the other 
secretions of the body mainly by its viscidity which depends on a peculiar 
substance to which the name of mucin or mucosin has been given. 
When unmixed with the other animal fluids, mucus is tough and 
extremely tenacious and stringy when attempted to be drawn out. 
It is sometimes so thin and limpid as almost to resemble water 
in appearance; while at others, and more commonly it is tough and 
viscid. When thin and watery, it is nearly transparent and colorless, 
the more viscid forms, however, are turbid or opaque, and usually of a 
pale yellowish or grayish color. It is generally alkaline to test paper, 
insoluble in water, and somewhat heavier than that fluid; so that when 
placed in water it gradually sinks to the bottom, unless it is buoyed irf) by 
entangled air-bubbles. The mucus obtained from the several parts of the 
body differs considerably in appearance, and probably also in chemical 
composition. When dry it is hard and friable, resembling horn in 
appearance; the dry mass, on being digested in water, gradually swells 
up, and partially reassumes its former appearance. 

When mucus is examined under the microscope, with a power of 
about 200 diameters, it is found to contain numerous round or oval 
granular corpuscles, together with epithelial scales entangled in a more 
or less viscid fluid, to which latter the peculiar tenacious character 
of mucus appears to be due. Mucus, therefore, consists of two distinct 
portions; the solid corpuscles with epithelial scales, and the fluid with 
which they are surrounded. Under favorable circumstances, and with a 
high magnifying power, the fluid portion appears to be filled with 
extremely minute molecular particles, the nature of which is not clearly 
understood. 








160 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


The size of the mucus corpuscles varies considerably, the average 
diameter being about 2 , oooth of an inch. Their surfaces are granular, 
similar to those of pus. Mucus contains mucus corpuscles, epithelial 
scales, mucin, extractive matter, fat (traces) and sometimes a trace of 
albumen and saline matters, which, as may be seen in the annexed table, 
are made up of alkaline chlorides and lactates, phosphate of lime and 
carbonate of soda. 

Mucin, to which the tenacity of mucus is due, is insoluable in pure 
water and is probably held in solution in mucus by the small quantity of 
alkali present in the same. When mucus is treated with an excess of 
distilled water the mucin separates as a white coagulum. 

The composition of mucus, according to the analyses of Nasse, is as 
follows: 

COMPOSITION OF PULMONARY MUCUS. 


Water. 955.52 

Animal matter. 33.57 

Fat. 2.89 

Chloride of sodium ... . 5.83 

Phosphates of soda and potassa. 1.05 

Sulphates “ “ . 0.65 

Carbonates “ “ . 0.49 


1000.00 

The varieties of mucus found in different parts of the body are prob¬ 
ably not identical in composition, but differ a little in the character of 
their principal organic ingredients, as well as in the proportions of their 
saline constituents. The function of mucus is for the most part a .physi¬ 
cal one, viz.: to lubricate the mucous surfaces, to defend them from 
injury, and to facilitate the passage of foreign substances through the 
cavities lined with mucous membrane. 

The tears are like mucus in their chemistry but contain only one 
part of solids to the thousand, and this chiefly chloride of sodium. 

MUSCLES AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE. 

Between the skin and the muscles lies the connective tissue, which, as 
its name denotes, binds all parts of the body together (See page 89). The 
various forms of connective tissue show marked chemical differences 
according to its age, function and animal kingdom to which it belongs. 
Under the microscope it shows a ground substance, containing cells and 
elastic fibers, and these chemically all differ one from another. The 
most important constituents of striated connective tissue is Collagen and 
in addition are found an insoluble albuminoid, probably identical with 
mucin, mineral constituents and fat. In the interstitial fluids of con¬ 
nective tissue, in the middle coats of the arteries, and in the cell sub- 










GELATINE AND CHONDRIN. 


161 


stance of the corneal layer of the skin we find paraglobulin, or fibrino- 
plastic substance—which see later. 

The most marked characteristic of the connective tissue is its solu¬ 
bility, or rather, of its ground substance in boiling water, which first 
swells it to a jelly-like substance, and then dissolves it, producing gela¬ 
tine, the epidermis does the same. 

Dilute inorganic acids and dilute alkalies also effect this transforma¬ 
tion. There is believed to exist in this tissue a substance (collagen, 
glutine, geline) analogous with ossein, which, in contact with hot water, 
furnishes gelatine; also a substance (elastin) not furnishing gelatine. 

Tannin and mercury bichloride form with these matters imputrescible 
compounds. 

Cellular tissue is converted into a transparent and colorless jelly by 
the action of strong acetic acid; but the fiber is not attacked, for if the 
acid be saturated with ammonia water it reappears in its ordinary 
condition. 

Collagen may be prepared by washing finely divided tendons with 
cold water, then covering with barium hydrate for some days, and later 
treating with cold water acidulated with acetic acid. 

Collagen is insoluble in cold water, but in boiling water it is converted 
into gelatine, and forms a jelly-like mass on cooling. Dilute acids and 
alkalies hasten the conversion of collagen into gelatine; thus, if collagen 
be placed in dilute acid or alkali until it begins to swell and then be 
placed in water at 40 degrees, it will dissolve. In strong acetic acid, 
collagen swells, and the fibers become indistinct, but reappear when the 
acid has been washed out with water or neutralized with an alkali. 

GELATINE. 

Boil collagen prepared as above, and allow the solution to cool, when 
gelatine will form; or, pure gelatine is best prepared by dissolving clean 
white pieces of isinglass in dilute hydrochloric acid and removing the 
inorganic salts from this solution by dialysis, when pure gelatine 
remains. 

Pure gelatine is an amorphous, transparent, yellowish-white, tasteless 
and odorless substance. In cold water it swells, but does not dissolve; 
in hot water it dissolves and is deposited in a jelly-like mass on cooling. 
It readily undergoes putrefaction and then gives off the odor of ammonia; 
putrefaction is prevented by carbolic acid. Gelatine heated in the flame 
swells, evolves the odor of burning feathers and burns with a pale flame. 
Gelatine when long heated in sealed tubes becomes so modified as to 
become soluble in cold water. Long boiling with dilute acids decom¬ 
poses gelatine and converts it into leucin and glycocoll. 

Gelatine and Chondrin do not preexist in the animal kingdom, but 
11 


162 THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 

result from the action of boiling water on gelatinous tissues, such as 
skin, tendons and bones or the cartilages of the ribs. 

ULTIMATE COMPOSITION OF GELATINE AND CHONDRIN. 

Gelatine. Chondrine.’ 


Carbon. 50.0 49.1 

Hydrogen. 6.6 7.1 

Nitrogen . 18.3 14.4 

Oxygen. 25.1 . 29.4 


100.0 100.0 

In addition to the above earthy phosphates are always present. 

Gelatine is found in a pure state as isinglass (the dried swimming 
bladder of the sturgeon), and in a less pure state as calfVfoot jelly, glue 
and size. It is soluble in hot water, but insoluble either in cold water, 
alcohol, or in ether. It shrinks greatly in bulk when exposed to dry 
air. When perfectly dry, gelatine may be preserved indefinitely, but 
when moist it rapidly becomes acid, and putrefies. 

A gelatine solution is precipitated as tanno-gelatine by tannic acid (the 
only acid known that possesses the power of precipitating it), by 
alcohol, by mercuric chloride, by mercurous and mercuric nitrates, and 
by chlorine (forming a chloride of gelatine). It is neither precipitated 
by alum nor by basic or neutral lead acetate. 

Boiled with strong alkaline solutions, it is converted into leucin, or 
amido-caproic acid (C 6 H 13 N0 2 ) and glycocoll (glycoine) or amido-acetic 
acid (C 2 H 5 N0 2 ) with the evolution of ammonia. 

The elastic tissues do not dissolve even after an ebulition of sixty 
hours, and do not furnish gelatine. 

The basis of elastic tissue is an albuminous substance known as 
ellastin, which is a yellowish white elastic substance when moist, but 
brittle upon drying. It again swells upon boiling with water or acetic 
acid, but is insoluble in both and also in alcohol and ether. When 
heated with a concentrated solution of an alkali elastin dissolves, form¬ 
ing a brownish solution which gives no precipitate on the addition of 
sulphuric acid. Concentrated nitric acid colors elastin bright yellow, 
and converts into jelly which turns reddish on the addition of ammonia. 
Long boiling with dilute sulphuric acid produces leucin and tyrosin 
from elastin, the former in larger quantity. 

The mucous areolar tissue differs chemically from ordinary connec¬ 
tive tissue, in that it does not furnish gelatine on being boiled with water. 

The reticular tissue of the cutis contains the pigment called melanin , 
the coloring matter of the skin. This tissue is not reproduced com¬ 
pletely where destroyed, but is replaced by cellular tissue, and the cica¬ 
trix is due to the fact that this latter tissue is colorless. 








GLYCERITES OF THE FATTY ACIDS. 


FAT. 

As has previously been said fat is mainly contained in the 
meshes of connective tissue and widely distributed over the body. (See 
page 89.) The fat of the body is derived in part directly from the fats 
of food, and in part from its hydrocarbons and albumen as shown in 
cattle that are fattened by being fed upon corn. Similarly fat may be 
produced from albuminous compounds as muscle is known to become 
fatty with the aged. Unused muscle contains an excess of fat, and the 
change of the dead body into adijmcere, a fatty substance, will be 
described under putrefaction. Fat is a normal constituent of the fluids 
of the body, except the urine, and is plentifully distributed through the 
tissues in health, and often to an excessive degree in pathological condi¬ 
tions of the system in almost any or every organ. It represents a low 
state of organization and when the tissue of the liver, heart or other 
organ becomes unduly transformed into fat,that organ will soon cease to 
perform its functions normally. The fat which accumulates patholog¬ 
ically is identical with that which, in smaller quantity, is a normal con¬ 
stituent of the tissues. 

Fatty globules, even when present in small quantity, may be recog- . 
nized by their microscopic appearance. They consist of a thin mem¬ 
brane, inclosing a fluid; in the dead body the contents of the membrane 
are sometimes found crystallized, in consequence of the removal of the 
heat of the body. These crystals generally appear in needles arranged 
in bundles or in rosettes. The perfect oil globule is spherical, floats 
upon watej and is colorless or of a faintly yellow tint. 

Some of the fats of the body are fluid and others solid at ordinary 
temperatures. They give a neutral reaction, since they consist of fatty 
acids combined with glyceryl forming neutral compounds. They are 
insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in cold, more freely in hot alcohol, 
and soluble in ether, chloroform and volatile oils; also soluble to some 
extent in each other; thus olive oil is a solution of palmitin and stear¬ 
in in olein. Water containing albumen or bile-acid will hold fat in a 
finely divided state and will appear milky, while if fat be added to water 
alone the globules will float upon the surface. Upon being boiled with 
an alkali, the fats are broken up into glycerine and fatty acids, the latter 
combining with the alkali to form a soap. If the fats, for instance 
butter, be allowed to stand exposed to the air, it sooner or later becomes 
rancid, volatile oils being formed. The most important of the fats of 
the animal body are 

iii. • 

STEARIN— (C3H5O3) (C 18 H3oO) 3 . 

It may be seen from the formula that stearin is formed by the com¬ 
bination of three molecules of stearic acid with triad glyceryl. 


164 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


Stearin is prepared as follows: Extract mutton or beef tallow with cold 
ether, which dissolves only traces of stearin ; extract the residue in¬ 
soluble in cold ether with hot ether, and allow this extract to cool when 
stearin is deposited in rectangular plates or prisms which are very 
sparingly soluble in alcohol. They melt at 63° 0., solidify at 61° and 
before melting again must be heated to 66°. 

ill. 

OLEINT- (C3H5O3) 3 (CigHggO). 

Pure olein at ordinary temperatures is a colorless fluid which becomes 
oxidized on exposure to the air and turns more or less yellow. It is 
freely soluble in ether and absolute alcohol, slightly so in cold dilute 
alcohol and insoluble in water. It is itself a good solvent for stearin 
and palmitin, the latter of which separates from olive oil by cooling (0°) 
and allowing to stand for twenty-four hours. The supernatant fluid 
contains the olein, which may be extracted from it by alcohol and crystal- 
izes in needles at a low temperature (—5).j 

PALMITIH —C 3 H 5 0 3 ( C 16 H 31 0 ) 3 . 

It has already been stated that when olive oil is kept for some time 
at a temperature of 0°, palmitin is deposited in a crystalline form; these 
crystals, after the supernatant oil has been poured off, are dissolved 
in boiling alcohol from which they separate on cooling, They are 
slightly soluble in cold, freely soluble in hot alcohol, and ether. From a 
saturated solution in hot alcohol, palmitin forms in needles as the solu¬ 
tion cools. If stearin be also present the mixture not unfrequently 
forms in balls which consist of radiating needles or fine plates; this 
mixture was formerly mistaken for a fourth fat and the name margarine. 
given it from its pearly luster. This margarine will be found mentioned 
in all of the earlier works on animal chemistry. 

All of the fats are insoluble in water but readily dissolved by ether. 
Prolonged boiling with a caustic alkali, or one of the stronger bases, as 
lead, decomposes these fats into glycerine and either stearic, oleic or pal¬ 
mitic acid, thus: Caustic potash and stearin heated together. 

3 K 0 H -f-C 3 H 5 0 3 3 (C 18 H 35 0)=3KC 18 H 35 0 -{- 3 (C 3 H 5 0 3 jo 3 H 3 

or three molecules of potassium stearate and one molecule of glycerine. 
(See antiseptics.) The different kinds of animal fats contain olein, 
stearin and palmitin in varying proportions, but as a rule .the more 
solid the fat the larger the proportion of stearin it contains. Fatty 
matters show one peculiarity in the body which distinguishes them from 
all other proximate principles, viz.: their isolation by themselves. All 
of the other proximate principles are associated together but the fats are 
not found united with other elements than themselves, except in nerve 



CARTILAGE. 


165 


tissue where they are joined with albuminoid matter. So it comes to pass 
that the fats instead of making a coherent solid or fluid with other sub¬ 
stances are found in masses or globules which are suspended in the inter¬ 
stices or anatomical elements, or deposited in the substance of fibers or 
membranes* What is known as adipose tissues consist of vesicles (oJo-aoo 111 ) 
entirely filled with fat and held in a thin structureless membrane. 
During emaciation the oil and fat contained in these gradually disappear 
and their place is taken by a watery serum. For the chemistry of the 
assimilation and digestion of fats see digestion. 

CARTILAGE. 

There are both histological and chemical differences between true or 
hyaline cartilage, and the fibrous variety or fibro-cartilage. The cor¬ 
puscles of the former lie imbedded in a smooth, semi-transparent base; 
while the structure of the latter is distinctly fibrous; the basis of hyaline 
cartilage is cliondrogen , while that of fibro-cartilage is collagen. 

Chondrogen can be changed by boiling water into chondrin, a sub¬ 
stance which resembles gelatine in some respects. Chondrin does not 
exist as such in cartilage, but only potentially in the chondrogen, or car- 
tilagein, as. it is sometimes called, from which the chondrin is prepared 
by prolonged boiling under pressure. 

Dried chondrin is a glassy, transparent, yellowish substance, which 
is insoluble in alcohol and ether. In cold water it swells but does not 
dissolve, while in hot water it dissolves and separates as a jelly-like mass 
on cooling. It is also soluble in alkali. Like gelatine, chondrin if heat¬ 
ed in closed tubes for some time at 140 degrees is so modified as to be 
soluble in cold water. It is not as soluble as gelatine in boiling water, 
and it is precipitated by acids. In the case of acetic acid the precipitate 
is insoluble in an excess of acid; but in the case of the other acids the 
least excess of acid effects the solution of the precipitate. Its solution 
is precipitated by alum and by lead acetate. It forms glucose when 
boiled with hydrochloric acid. 

Glue is manufactured by boiling the parings of hides, etc., in water. 
The hides are first carefully cleansed from hair and blood by lime. This 
done, the lime is carbonized by free exposure, after which the hides are 
boiled in water. The liquid is then kept warm for a time so as to allow 
the impurities to subside. The solution is then cooled, the gelatinized 
mass being cut into slices and dried on nets in the air. The tempera¬ 
ture at which the drying process is effected is important, for a summer 
heat would melt the glue, while a winter cold would spoil it. 

The resemblance between chondrin and gelatine is so close that, the 
following table, taken from Hoffmann's Zoochemie is given, to indi¬ 
cate the differences between the two substances. 


166 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


GELATINE. 

C=50.0 H= 6.7 

N=18.1 0=24.6 

(1) Not precipitated by acetic acid. 

(2) Soluble in mineral acids. 

(3) Not precipitated b} r acetate of lead, 
or alum. 

(4) Precipitated by tannic acid and 
mercuric chloride. 

(5) Yields leucin and glycocoll by 
putrefaction. 

(6) Y r ields no sugar on being boiled 
with hydrochloric acid. 


CHONDRIN. 

C=50.0 H= 6.6 

N—14.4 0=29.0 

(1) Precipitated by acetic acid. 

(2) Precipitated by mineral acids. 

(3) Precipitated by acetate of lead and 
by most salts of the heavy metals, as alum. 

(4) Only rendered turbid by tannic acid 
and mercuric chloride. 

(5) Yields leucin but no gly cocoll by 
putrefaction. 

(6) YYelds cliondroglucosc on being 
boiled with hydrochloric acid. 


Besides chondrin, cartilage contains water, fat and inorganic salts; 
the latter consisting of tlie phosphate and sulphate of lime, the phosphate 
of magnesium and the chloride, carbonate, phosphate and sulphate of 
sodium. It is an interesting fact, first observed by Yon Bibra, that the 
salts of potash are not found in cartilage. The per cent of water con¬ 
tained in cartilage varies from 50 to 75. The per cent of inorganic salts 
varies from 3 to 7 and seems to depend upon the age of the animal from 
which the cartilage is taken. The following table, taken from the Lehr- 
buch of Gorup-Besanez, shows the per cent of ash found by Yon Bibra 
in the costal cartilages of persons of different ages: 


A child 6 months of age. .2.24 

A child 3 years of age.3.00 

A girl of 19 years of age.7.29 

A woman of 25 years of age.3.92 

A man of 20 years of age.3.40 

A man of 40 years of age.6.10 


Approximate analysis of cartilage gives the following results: 


Water.75.59 

Organic matter.24.87 

Inorganic matter. 1.54 


100.00 

Or by breaking these up into their elements: 

Carbon.:.50.91 

Oxygen. 6.96 

Nitrogen. 14.90 

Oxygen.27.23 


100.00 

Chondroglucose. Sugar may be obtained from cartilage differing 
both from laevulo-glucose and dextroglucose, by the prolonged action of 



















CHEMISTRY OF THE BONES. 


167 

dilute acid and boiling upon the cartilage, with the removal of foreign 
matters by lead acetate and filtration. This sugar reduces copper and 
is nartially fermentable. See chemistry of digestion. 


CHEMISTRY OF THE BONES. 


Osseous tissue is composed of both inorganic (70 per cent) and 
organic constituents, differing chiefly from cartilage by the mineral salts 
which have been deposited during the change from cartilage to bone, not 
by incrustation but by deposition of the inorganic matter particle by 
particle. 


Omitting for the present the periosteum, or external membrane of the 
bone, and the internal membranes, marrow, etc., we may say that bone 
consists of an organic substance, called ossein, with inorganic compounds. 
It has been stated that iron has been found in bone, but if present, it is 
probably due to the retention of blood in the bone. 

Bones deprived of their fat and periosteum, are according to Berze¬ 
lius, composed of : 


Mineral portion 


Organic portion 


f Calcium phosphate. 

J Calcium carbonate. 

J Magnesium phosphate. 

( Sodium chloride and carbonate 

j Cartilage (Ossein). 

/ Blood vessels. 


Man. 

53.04 

11.30 

1.10 

1.20 

32.17 

1.13 


100.00 


The mineral portion of bone may be separated from the organic by 
keeping the bone at a red heat until all of the organic matter is removed. 
The bone will still preserve its original form, but becomes very brittle. 
On the other hand the inorganic salts may be removed and leave the 
organic behind by simply soaking a bone for a long enough time in dilute 
muriatic acid. A bone thus treated retains its form but becomes flex¬ 
ible, yellowish and translucent and now consists almost exclusively of 
ossein, which has the special characteristic of being transformed by boil¬ 
ing water into gelatine (See page 161). Ossein becomes hard upon dry¬ 
ing, and again pliable and elastic when placed in water. 

The bones of the embryo, even to the latest period of intra-uterine 
life, contain no ossein but chondrogen; while, after complete ossification, 
the bone contains no trace of chondrogen. Fremy found that the 
organic basis of some fish bones and of the bones of certain water-fowls, 
after being boiled with water, deposited no gelatine and consequently 
differs from ossein. 

Fossil bones contain that modification of collagen which is soluble in 
cold water, and together with this, in some cases, the ordinary form, i. e., 
that soluble in hot water and forming a jelly on cooling; the latter may 









1G8 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


be entirely replaced by the former. In very old fossil bones, the organic 
basis has entirely disappeared ; also parts of the bone are replaced by 
silica and alumina, forming a petrifaction. Fresh bones when completely 
freed from blood and marrow contain no iron, but this element is often 
found in considerable quantity in buried bones. Haidinger found the 
medullary canal of the bones of a human skeleton containing crystals of 
vivianite. 

The fat contained in bones has not been very thoroughly studied, but 
consists principally of triolein and tripalmatin. 

The inorganic constituents of bone are calcic chloride, CaCl 2 , calcic 
fluoride, CaFl 2 , calcic carbonate, CaC0 3 , calcic phosphate, Ca 3 (P0 1 ) 2 , 
and magnesic phosphate, Mg 3 (P0 4 ) 2 . 

Aeby is of the opinion that the cartilage and calcium phosphate 
of the bones are not combined, but that the organic foundation of the 
bones simply induces ossification without entering into chemical relations 
with the calcium phosphate. And it may be readily proven that ossein 
is not combined chemically with the calcium of the bones, by boiling a 
quantity of ossein equal in w r eight to that which exists in a given weight 
of bone and treating that weight of bone at the same time with boiling 
water when it will be found that the transformation into gelatine is as 
rapid in one case as the other. 

How bones are formed and in what way they grow is a question of no 
little importance and one which is not yet fully understood. It seems 
that the cliondrogen of* the foetus is not transformed into ossein or 
collagen, but is replaced by it. We know but little more concerning the 
inorganic part of the bone. It has been proven that the chick as it 
escapes from the shell contains more lime than the interior of the egg, 
and that the shell has, during the period of incubation, lost an equal 
amount of lime. The following facts seem to be well proven in reference 
to the composition of human bones, viz.: 

1. There is a close resemblance in their chemical composition in the 
bones of the higher animals. 

2. The bones of the young contain more animal matter and less 
earthy matter than the bones of adults. There is, however, no well- 
marked gradation in the proportions. 

3. The composition of bone is influenced by certain diseases. The 
alteration generally consists in a diminution of the earthy constituents ; 
for instance, in caries, where the inorganic-portion of the bone is 
destroyed and the organic remains almost intact. In rachitis the 
mineral salts are removed to such an extent that the bones are no longer 

o 

capable of supporting the body, and the ossein is also changed, for boil¬ 
ing water no longer changes it into gelatine, but takes an acid reaction. 

4. The composition of bone varies slightly with the part from 


CHEMISTRY OF THE BOHES. 


169 


which it is derived. Thus the femur and humerus contain more earthy 
matter than the tibia and fibula or the radius and ulna, whilst the 
scapula, the sternum and the bones of the trunk contain less earthy 
matter than the long bones. 

5. It would seem that the bones of males contain slightly more 
earthy matter than the bones of females. 

Hie inarrow of the long bones consists of collagen containing fats. 
The cellular tissue of the spongy bones contains a soft, reddish substance 
which consists of albumen, free acid and extractive matters. Whether the 
free acid be lactic, as claimed by Berzelius, is not yet positively known. 
Oholesterin is not an infrequent constituent. 

Marrow is formed, according to Berzelius, of— 


Fat . 96 

Blood-vessels, membrane, etc. 1 

Extractive substances. $ 


100 

According to Eylerch, the fatty matter of marrow is constituted of 
three ethers of glyceryl whose acids are the palmitic, medullic and 
elaidic. 

The membrane which covers the walls of the osseous canals is formed 
of an albuminoid substance insoluble in boiling water. Nitrogenous 
bodies derived from the blood-vessels and nerves are also found in the 
bones, as well as fatty matters. 

Chemism: (a) Action of heat in open vessels. The organic matter 
burns away, leaving a white “ bone-ash ” (Ca 3 P 2 0 8 ). This residue is used 
in the manufacture of phosphorus, and also as a manure, in the form 
principally of superphosphate. 

(b) Action of heat in closed vessels (destructive distillation). Am¬ 
monia and tarry matters (bone-oil or DippeTs oil) are given off, the 
residue in the retort constituting “animal charcoal” or “bone black.” 

This consists of a mixture of phosphate of lime and finely divided 
carbon. Animal charcoal is largely used by the sugar refiners. When 
its deodorizing power has been exhausted, it is burnt for the purpose of 
recovering the bone ash. 

(c) Action of water. When bones are boiled in water at 212 deg. 
F. (100 deg. C), all that occurs is the separation of the grease present 
in the bone. This floats on the surface of the water, the ossein of the 
bone being insoluble. If the bone, however, be digested in water at a 
temperature of 100 deg. F., as in a Papin's digester, the organic matter 
is rapidly converted into gelatine, which is soluble in water. This con¬ 
verted ossein is used in glue. 

(, d) Action of acids. When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to 






170 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


bone, effervescence first occurs by its action on the lime carbonate. In 
time the dilute acid dissolves out the whole of the earthly phosphates, 
etc., leaving only the ossein (the organic constituent of the bone), a 
semi-transparent, horn-like body, which by the action of heat under 
pressure is converted into gelatine. 

DENTAL TISSUES. 

Three substances are distinguished in the teeth: the dentine , which 
forms the greater part of the teeth; the cement, which covers the cervix 
and roots, and the enamel. 

The cement has a structure similar to that of the bones. It has a 
cavity which contains the nerves and blood-vessels, and in which arise 
the little canals which ramify and penetrate to the surface of the teeth. 
Treated with an acid, it parts with its inorganic constituents, and there 
remains an organic residue capable of furnishing gelatine, according to 
some authors, though denied by Hoppe-Seyler. The cement has the 
composition, substantially, of the bones. 

The enamel is hard and brittle; it contains about ninety per cent of 
calcium phosphate, and a considerable quantity of calcium fluoride, and 
only two to six per cent of organic substances. 

The enamel is the poorest in water and richest in organic salts of any 
part of the body. The organic part of the enamel, when separated from 
the inorganic by solution of the latter in hydrochloric acid, appears as 
four or six-sided prisms, which on being boiled with water do not form 
gelatine and which behave as epithelial tissue. The enamel of the grow¬ 
ing teeth contains more organic matter than that of the fully developed 
tooth. The fluid which surrounds the tooth as it is inclosed in the den¬ 
tal sack is strongly alkaline in reaction and contains albumen. Berzelius 
gives the following analysis of dental tissue, viz.: 


Organic matter. 28.0 

Calcium phosphates. 04.4 

Magnesium phosphate.... . 1.0 

Calcium carbonate. 5.3 

Sodium carbonate and chloride. 1.3 


Water, animal matter, alkali (traces). 

100.0 

Molar teeth appear to contain more mineral matter than the incisors 
(Bibra). The relation of the calcium phosphate to the calcium com¬ 
bined with carbonic acid, and in sqme analysis with chlorine and fluorine, 
suggests an analogy between the combination of the enamel and the min¬ 
eral apatite, and this combination makes the teeth almost as enduring- 
after death as the mineral itself. 










MUSCLES AND FLESH. 


171 


MUSCULAR TISSUE. 

A chemical analysis of muscle is attended with many difficulties 
owing to the changes produced by various causes: thus, muscle at rest 
manifest a neutral or an alkaline reaction, while the contracted muscle 
gives a distinctly, acid reaction. Again as long as the muscle is contract¬ 
ile and living, it contains a fluid resembling the plasma of blood; while 
in the dead muscle, coagulation of this fluid has taken place. So long 
as the muscle is contractile, its plasma is transparent; while after the 
supply of blood has been cut off, the muscle becomes shorter, thicker, 
less elastic and less transparent. Besides albuminous substances, muscle 
contains many other organic and inorganic constituents, for chemically 
it is an exceedingly complex compound. 

The muscles under the microscope consist of a reddish contractile 
tissue (see page 88) with an external envelope (sarcolemma) and the 
muscle substance proper. A chemical analysis of muscular tissue, accord¬ 
ing to Von Bibra, gives the following results: 


COMPOSITION OF FLESH. 


Water... 

Muscular fibres, vessels and nerves 

Fats. 

Extractive matters. 

Cellular tissue.. 

Soluble albumen.. 


Pectoral Muscles. 

Man. 

Woman. 

72.46 

74.45 

16.83 

15.54 

4.24 

2.30 

2.80 

3.71 

1.92 

2.07 

1.75 

1.93 


100.00 100.00 

Flesh leaves from 2 to 8 per cent of ash, formed chiefly of alkaline and 
earthy phosphates; sodium chloride and sodium sulphate are also present. 

Muscle, therefore, contains about three-fourths its weight of water, 
one part of which is due to the blood present, and a second part to the 
“juice of flesh,” as it is called, i. e ., an acid liquid containing creatine, 
inosite and certain salts, together with- phosphoric, lactic and butyric 
acids, each of which demands examination more in detail. 

Muscle juice, or plasma is the name giyen the fluid which bathes the 
ultimate fibers of the muscle during life. It may be separated from the 
muscles of a very recently kijled animal by freezing them, for at — 7° 
muscular substance becomes very brittle and can be pulverized in a 
well-cooled mortar with snow containing 1 per cent of common salt. At 
— 3° the mass melts and a cloudy fluid may be obtained by filtration 
at 0°. This opalescent, yellowish, viscid alkaline fluid is muscle 
plasma, which, on exposure to an ordinary temperature, becomes trans¬ 
formed into a jelly-like mass with a supernatant fluid. 











172 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE IIUMAH BODY. 


Myosin may be prepared by allowing the above filtrate, kept cold, to 
fall into water at ordinary temperature, drop by drop. As each drop 
falls a fine white precipitate falls, which is myosin. Myosin therefore is 
not a constituent of living muscle, but one of its death products, and 
corresponds to the fibrin produced by the coagulation of blood. Unlike 
fibrin myosin is not at all fibrinous but forms in transparent flakes which 
are insoluble in water but soluble in dilute solutions of common salt, 
from which solutions it does not separate upon standing. Boiling and 
alcohol separate it from its solutions, but at the same time change it into 
albumen, soluble in alkalies and forming albuminates. 

Syntonin , according to Wheeler, is produced when an acid, saturated 
solution of myosin is used instead of the one mentioned above, and 
differs from myosin in not dissolving in solutions containing less than 
10 to 12 per cent of common salt. According to the same author solutions 
of syntonin in acid are not coagulated by boiling, but are by the 
chlorides and alkaline sulphates. Syntonin dissolves in caustic alkaline 
fluids, and in dilute solutions of the carbonates and reprecipitates when 
these solutions are neutralized, even when the alkaline phosphates are 
present, w T herein syntonin differs from the albuminates. 

Muscle serum is the name given to the faintly yellowish fluid which 
separates after the coagulation of muscle plasma (See page 171). 

The liquid which remains after the coagulation of myosin contains, 
according to Kuhne, two albuminoid substances, one coagulable at 75 
degrees the other at 45 degrees, and alkaline albuminates; also salts, which 
are chiefly phosphates, lactic acid, and lactates, sugar and various or¬ 
ganic substances, as creatine, creatinine, inosic acid, inosite, sarcosine, 
sarkin and xanthin. This liquid is coagulable by heat, and of a red 
color; its acidity is due to lactic acid and acid phosphate of potassium, 
which may be extracted from the muscles by dilute alcohol. 

It is claimed by Fremy and others that there exists in the muscles a 
special acid, called oleophosphoric acid, and that this acid is combined 
with sodium. 

According to Dubois Raymond, the muscles do not possess an acid 
reaction until after death, and while contractile their reaction is slightly 
alkaline. (See putrefaction.) 

creatine —C 4 H 9 N 3 0 2 . 

Creatine is found in varying proportions in the muscles of all verte¬ 
brates and of some invertebrates. According to Hofmann, the amount 
of creatine in human muscle varies from 0.14 to 0.49 per cent. About 
the same amount is found in the muscles of the ox, dog and cat. A 
somewhat larger per cent is present in the flesh of the domestic fowl and 


CREATINE AND CREATININE. 


173 


of the frog. Creatine exists normally in small quantities in the brain, in 
blood, in the urine, and in various transudations. 

Creatine crystallizes in beautiful prisms with many modifications. 
These contain one molecule of water of crystallization and are repre¬ 
sented by the formula, C 4 H 9 N 3 0 2 -j-H 2 0. The crystals are sparingly 
soluble in cold, freely soluble in hot water. From a saturated solution 
in hot water, creatine is deposited in fine needles on cooling. It is 
insoluble in cold alcohol and ether, soluble in hot dilute spirits of wine. 
Its solutions are neutral to litmus and have a bitter, irritating taste. If 
crystals of creatine be heated to 100 degrees, they lose their water of 
crystallization and become opaque. Creatine readily gives off ammonia 
when boiled with baric hydrate, fii’st being converted into sarcosine and 
urea, as may be seen by the annexed equations: 

(C 4 H 9 N 3 0 2 +H 2 0)=C 3 H 7 N0 2 +CH 4 ]Sr 8 0 : * 

(Crystallized creatine) (Sarcosine) (Urea): 

CH 4 N 2 0-fH 2 0=C0 2 +2(NH 3 ). 

(Urea) (Water)=(Carbonic anhyodride) (Ammonia). 

CREATININE,—C 4 H 7 N 3 0. 

Creatine is so easily converted into creatiniiie, that it is not certain 
whether the latter exists preformed in muscle or not. The small amount 
of creatinine which has been obtained by some chemists from flesh might 
have been produced from creatine during the process of separation. 
Creatinine is a constant constituent of normal urine. It is best pre¬ 
pared from creatine by the action of the mineral acids. Heat creatine with 
dilute sulphuric acid on the water-bath for one hour. Neutralize the 
solution with baric carbonate, filter and evaporate the filtrate until crea¬ 
tine crystallizes. 

Creatinine forms in prisms which belong to the monoclinic sys¬ 
tem. It is more freely soluble in water than creatine is; creatinine 
requiring only 11.5 parts of cold water for solution. It is sparingly 
soluble in cold alcohol, freely soluble in hot alcohol. From its solution 
in hot alcohol, creatinine crystallizes on cooling. Its solutions have a 
caustic taste resembling that of ammonia and give a decidedly alkaline 
reaction. Creatinine is a true animal alkaloid, combining with acids 
forming salts and liberates ammonia from its combinations. 

It will be seen, therefore, that the amount of creatine and creatinine, 
present in the body and its excretions depends largely upon the kind of 
food taken. Liebig found that a dog fed exclusively upon muscle ex¬ 
creted largely quantities of creatine and creatinine and but little when 
kept upon fatty foods. Creatinine may be reconverted into creatine by 
boiling with lead oxide. 

It forms with zinc chloride a com Dination which is but slightly solu¬ 
ble in cold water. According to Neubauer, creatine does not exist in 


174 


THE CHEMISTIiY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


flesh, but creatinine only, and the creatine which is found is formed by the 
transformation of the creatinine. Creatinine also exists in urine, and in 
the muscles of the Crustacea. 

sakcosine=C 3 H 7 N 0 2 . 

Prep. On submitting creatinine to a prolonged ebullition with baryta 
water another substance is formed, called sarcosine. 

H 2 0+C 4 H 9 N 3 0 3 =CH 4 N 2 0+C 3 H 7 N 0 2 

V-Y-- V -V- y 

Water. (Creatinine.) Urea. Sarcosine. 

This body crystallizes in rhombic crystals, which are colorless, very 
soluble in water, somewhat soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether. 
Sarcosine melts at a temperature above 100°, and is volatile. It is not a 
constituent of muscle but like creatine a derivative and interesting as one 
of the steps in the decomposition of muscular tissue. 

Inosic acid. The mother liquor of creatine is acid, and has an odor 
of meat broth. Extract of meat treated with baryta furnishes on evapo¬ 
ration inosate of barium,.and the liquid contains inosite. The formula 
of inosic acid is usually given as C 5 H 8 ]S[ 2 0 6 , though some authors regard 
it as C 10 H u N 4 O 12 . ' ^ 

inosite— C 6 H 12 0 6 + 2 H 2 0. 

Inosite, also known as muscle-sugar, is found not only in muscle, but 
also in the vegetable world, especially in green fruits and grains. It is 
present in the urine in diabetes mellitus, and in some forms of albumin¬ 
uria. The muscular tissue of those long accustomed to the excessive use 
of alcohol, contains more inosite than that of healthier persons. 

Preparation : Inosite is best prepared from the muscles of the heart, 
in the form of large rhombic plates, containing two molecules of water 
of crystallization. It has a sweet taste and is soluble in water, but insol¬ 
uble in cold alcohol and ether. Its aqueous solution does not ferment 
with yeast, nor does it reduce cupric oxide, although it acts as a solvent 
for it. At 210° inosite melts and on cooling reforms in acicular crystals. 

Inosite boiled with Fehling’s solution does not reduce the copper, 
but changes the color of the solution from blue to green. It does not 
produce a brown coloration when boiled with potassic hydrate, or, in 
other words, fails to give Moore’s test for sugar. It will be seen that 
inosite resembles grape sugar in its chemical composition, but the failure 
of the former to respond to the ordinary tests for the latter affords an 
easy method of distinguishing between the two. 

If inosite be dissolved in water containing albumen and the solution 
be set aside in a warm place, as the albumen decomposes the inosite will 
be broken up, forming lactic and butyric acids. If an aqueous solution 






GLYCOGEN AND PARALACTIC ACID. 


175 

of inosite be boiled with basic acetate of lead, a jelly-like mass is pre¬ 
cipitated. 

GLYCOGEN —C 6 H 10 O 3 . 

Glycogen exists in the muscle, white corpuscles, and in all developing 
cells of the animal. The muscular tissue of the foetus is especially rich 
in this constituent. It has been found in the placenta in large quan¬ 
tities ; it exists in the embryo of the chick, and is abundant in the ostrea 
edulis and cardium edule. During foetal life the liver contains but little 
glycogen, while in the adult this organ seems to be the great manufactory 
and store-house of this substance. Only in structural disease of the 
organ, is the liver of any vertebrate animal free from glycogen. 

The process of its extraction is too tedious to be here described in 
detail, but when properly prepared glycogen is a white, amorphous, taste¬ 
less, odorless powder, which is freely soluble in water and insoluble in 
alcohol or ethbr. If glycogen be dried without having been previously 
washed with strong alcohol it forms a pasty mass. 

Its aqueous solution is opalescent, but becomes clear on the addition 
of sodic hydrate which stains red; if dried glycogen be treated in the same 
manner, a brown color is produced. If glycogen be boiled with dilute 
hydrochloric acid, the former is converted into grape sugar; the same 
change is produced by the action of the saliva, pancreatic juice or blood. 

If to an aqueous solution of glycogen a few drops of blood be added 
and the mixture be kept on the water-bath for some time at a temper¬ 
ature of 40°, then freed from albumen and tested with Fehling’s solution, 
sugar will be found to be present. The blood acts as a ferment convert¬ 
ing the glycogen into sugar, this conversion consisting in the assumption 
of a molecule of water. 

It will be seen both from the formula and from its various reactions 
that glycogen is a starch. It is especially abundant in the liver of ani¬ 
mals which have been fed upon starchy or saccharine food. In some 
animals, the rabbit, for instance, after prolonged fasting the glycogen 
entirely disappears from the liver. Food consisting principally of fat 
does not increase the amount of this substance. What becomes of the 
glycogen of the liver is a question not positively decided. It is supposed 
to be gradually converted into sugar which is oxidized in the blood and 
assists in the production of muscular activity; but how the blood oxidizes 
the sugar is not known. 

PARALACTIC ACID —C 3 H 6 0 3 . 

This substance is always present in the muscles and has been found in 
the bile and urine after poisoning with phosphorus and also in the bones 
in cases of osteomatacia. 

Paralactic acid is, at ordinary temperature, a liquid of a syrupy con- 


176 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


sistency and miscible with water in all proportions. It combines with 
many bases, acting as a monobasic acid and forming characteristic com¬ 
pounds. Of these, one of the most important is the paralactate of zinc, 
which by the spontaneous concentration of its aqueous solution forms in 
fine prisms often arranged in bundles. The paralactate of lime is formed 
when calcic hydrate is boiled with paralactic acid, the excess of lime 
removed by precipitation with carbonic acid gas and filtration and the 
filtrate concentrated. 


NERVE TISSUE. 

t 

Nerve tissue of which are composed the nerves, ganglia, brain and 
spinal cord (See page 58) has not yet been fully analyzed. Nerve substance, 
or the semi-liquid medullary substance, which flows out of a cut nerve is 
soluble in cold dilute caustic potash, their sheaths or membranes are not 
dissolved by the alkalies but readily so by hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. 
The ganglia are formed of cells of variable size, consisting of a thin 
envelope containing a dense liquid, a nucleus and granules in suspension. 

The reaction of the nerves appears to be neutral during life; it 
becomes acid after death, and finally, at the moment when putrefaction 
sets in, it has an alkaline reaction. 

Different investigations made recently on the matter of the nerves 
and brain have shown that we are far from completely understanding its 
compositions. LiebriclTs protagon is now regarded as a mixture of cere- 
brin and lecithin; and the same may be said of myeloidin and myeloi- 
dinic acid. 

The constituents of the brain, more or less constant and normal, 
thus far determined with apparent certainty, are : 

(1) Water: (2) Albuminoid bodies resembling myosin — elastin — neuro- 

keratin — nuclein — collagen—soluble albumen, coagulat¬ 
ing at 75° — cerebrin and lecithin — glycerin-phosphoric 
acid—fats — cholesterin, inosite — hypoxanthin, xanthin, 
creatine, lactates—volatile fatty acids and uric acid — In¬ 
organic substances. 

(3) Calcium, potassium and magnesium phosphates, iron, oxide, silica, 
alkaline sulphates, sodium chloride and fluorine. (Horsford.) 


Although very extended and repeated investigations of the chemical 
nature of the brain have been made, it is yet the organ of the body 
whose chemistry is least understood, for its compounds are exceedingly 
complex, and isolated with great difficulty, and many are more or less 
changed during extraction. Such a list as that just given must be 
received with great caution, for many of the ultimate analyses from 
which the formulae of these substances are computed have most likely 


ALBUMEN. 


177 


been made from mixtures rather than pure chemical compounds. Con¬ 
sequently a full history of all the substances which some claim to have 
discovered in the brain will not be given here ; only a few of those best 
known and most thoroughly studied will be noticed. First and most 
important of these are the substances known as albuminoid bodies— 
from their resemblence to the albumen or white of an egg, as their name, 
from the Latin word for white, denotes. 

ALBUMEN. 

Synonyms: Envois ( Ger.), Alhumina {It. and Span.), (i CoagulaUe 
lymph ,” “ CoagulaUe animal lymph 99 {Rouelle, 1771-76), “ Deuxime 

espece de gelee animate. ” Fourcroy. 

The name first given to the white of an egg, and later applied by 
Gaetner to the substance which surrounds the embryo of certain grains, 
is now used to denote a large class of organic bodies containing carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. 

These bodies form the chief part of the solid constituents of animal 
organs. They are also found in small quantities in vegetables and are 
known as proteids, or albuminoids. 

The formula C 72 H 112 N 18 022S represents their composition approxi¬ 
mately. They are all amorphous; and turn the plane of polarization to 
the left. They are insoluble in alcohol and in ether, but are soluble in 
water, in acetic and the mineral acids and in the alkalies. They may 
be known by forming a yellow solution with nitric acid (xanthoproteic 
acid) which becomes orange-red when treated with ammonia. The 
caustic alkalies decompose them. They are precipitated from their 
solutions by acetic acid and by mercuric nitrate (Millon’s reagent), 
leaving, in the latter case, a red supernatant solution. They resemble 
each other chiefly in their property of coagulation, and in their being- 
colloid or impossible to dialyze, and all yield ammonia and calcium 
phosphates upon calcination. For the purpose of the present work they 
may be conveniently spoken of in the following groups: 

(a.) Resembling egg albumen with the annexed percentage of oxygen, 
carbon, nitrogen and sulphur. Serum albumen, paralbumen, syntonine 
blood fibrin and coagulated albumen are usually grouped here according 
to Robin’s classification. According to Gorup-Besanez their percentage 
composition is about as follows: 


Carbon. 52.7 

Hydrogen. 6.9 

Nitrogen. 15.4 

Oxygen. 20.9 

Sulphur. 6.8 


12 


100 








178 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


(b.) Contain more nitrogen and less carbon, e.g., keratin, ossein, 
epidermose, mucin, gelatines. 

( c .) Nitrogeneous glucosides, e.g., chondrin and cliitin, etc. 

N. B. The so-called coagulated albumen of false membranes is im¬ 
properly named, for by filtration through pow.dered MgS0 4 we obtain 
pure blood albumen, while the analagous, coagulable substance is coagu¬ 
lated and retained by the magnesia filter. Another and perhaps a better 
classification is that of Hoppe-Seyler, who arranges them as follows: 


ALBUMENS. 


Class 1 (Soluble in water). 


Name. Source. 

Ser-albumen. Blood-serum. 

Three thousand lbs. of bul¬ 
lock's blood yield about 110 lbs. 
of this albumen, which is largely 
prepared in Pesth for dyeing pur¬ 
poses and for clarifying sugar. 


Properties. 

A yellow, elastic, transparent sub¬ 
stance. It is not precipitated by a 
small quantity of very dilute acid, 
but is precipitated by the addition 
of strong acids. Soluble in excess of 
muriatic or nitric acid. 

When injected into the veins, it 
does not, like egg albumen, pass into 
the urine. 


Ov-albumen. Eggs. Coagulated by ether and turpen¬ 

tine. It is soluble in strong HN0 3 . 
When injected into the veins it 
passes into the urine unchanged. 

Veget-albumen. Plants. Like ov-albumen. 

Dried egg albumen closely resembles gum arabic ; but on the addition 
of water remains as a white insoluble powder, unless the liquid contains 
a free alkali, in which dried albumen is freely soluble, forming a yellow¬ 
ish liquid, from which it is reprecipitated upon the addition of acids. 
It is also precipitated by heat, carbonic acid and even a large excess of 
water. All albuminoid substances heated with an alkali form from their 
sulphur, sulphides and hyposulphites, and if left to themselves are very 
ready to putrefy and give off disagreeable sulphuretted compounds. 


CLASS II. GLOBULINS. 


(Insoluble in water , but soluble in dilute acids and alkalies, and also 
in dilute solutions of common salt, or other neutral salts. 

Name. Source. Properties. 

Myosin. Muscle. Coagulated by heat and by alcohol. 

It is soluble in very dilute HC1, rapid¬ 
ly becoming acid albumen. 




VARIETIES OF ALBUMEN. 


179 


Globulin Prepared from 
(para-globulin.) blood serum 

by passing 
C0 2 through 
a dilute so¬ 
lution. 

Globulin Aqueous humor 
and crystalline 
lense. 


Fibrinogen Pericardial fluid 
Hydrocele fluid, 
etc. 


Yitellin. Yolk of egg. 


The globulin from blood serum is 
Fibrino-plastic, i. e., it can form fibrin 
in contact with certain fluids (para- 
globulin). In this respect it differs 
from the globulin of the crystalline 
lens (globulin). 

* 

Precipitated by C0 2 , or by very di¬ 
lute acids from its solution in NaCl. 
Soluble in water saturated with oxygen, 
and in very dilute alkaline solutions ; 
but if the solution contains one per 
cent of alkali it dissolves as an albumin¬ 
ate, and not in a free state. It is con¬ 
verted into an acid-albumen by dilute 
acids. It coagulates at 158 degrees F. 
(70 degrees 0.) 

Produces fibrin when mixed with 
fibrino-plastic globulin (fibrino-genous). 
It is more difficult to precipitate «by 
C0 2 , and less difficult to precipitate by a 
mixture of alcohol and ether, than glob¬ 
ulin. 

Vitellin is the residue left after treat¬ 
ing the yolk with ether. It is a white 
granular body, insoluble in water and 
soluble in solutions of neutral salts. 
It is neither fibrino-plastic nor fibrino- 
genous. 

It is converted into acid albumen by 
dilute acids and is soluble in dilute 
alkalies as an albuminate. 


180 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


CLASS III. DERIVED ALBUMENS. 

(Insoluble in water and in dilate salt solutions; soluble in dilute acids 

and alkalies.) 

Name. Source. Properties. 

Acid albumen. Chemistry. If the albumens of Class I be acted 

on with a small quantity of dilute acid 
(muriatic or acetic), the coagulation of 
the albumen does not occur at 70° C. 
and its levo-rotary action on a polarized 
ray is largely increased (acid albumen). 
On neutralizing the acid solution, a 
white precipitate of albumen is thrown 
down, which will now be found to be 
insoluble in water or a NaCl solution, 
but soluble in an excess of alkali or cf 
• alkaline carbonates. Coagulates at 70° 

C. The albumens of Class II. are sol¬ 
uble in dilute acids as acid-albumen. 
The solution yields a precipitate when 
neutralized, which is not soluble in 
neutral saline solutions. 


Alkali-albumen, or albuminate. Alkalies, like acids, prevent the co¬ 
agulation of albumen (albuminates), the 
albumen being precipitated in neutrali¬ 
zing the solution. 

Casein. Casein is closely allied to the artificial 

albuminates. 


CLASS IV.—FIBRIN. 

(Insoluble in water , and but slightly soluble in neutral saline solutions or 

in dilute acids and alkalies .) 

Name. Source. Properties. 

Fibrin. Blood, lymph, chyle. Believed to be formed by the contact 

of fibrino-plastic and fibro-genous sub¬ 
stances. (See Blood.) It is insoluble 
in water except at very high tempera¬ 
tures, or after a very lengthened action. 
Fibrin is very elastic and possesses a 
filamentous structure. It swells up 
when acted on with dilute acids and 
alkalies, and after their prolonged 
action, aided by heat, dissolves slightly. 


PROTEIDS AND PEPTONES. 


181 


CLASS V.—COAGULATED PROTEID. 

{Insoluble either in dilute or strong acids, except acetic acid; soluble in 
the gastric fluid ( pepsin ) which converts it into syntonin and finally 
into peptone .) 

Properties. —This body is produced by the action of heat or of alcohol 
on neutral solutions of albumen, fibrin, myosin, etc. Strong HC1 and also 
ether convert egg-albumen into a coagulated form. Heat similarly con¬ 
verts the albuminates into a coagulated form, but the precipitate may be 
reconverted into the albuminate by potassic hydrate. 


CLASS VI.—PEPTONES. 

{Bodies formed by the action of the gastric juice on albuminoids ; soluble 


in water, insoluble 

Name. Source. 

Peptones. Stomach and small 

intestines only. 

(See Digestion.) 


in alcohol and ether.) 

Properties. 

These bodies are highly diffusible. 
They are not precipitated by acids or 
alkalies. 


The following table taken from Fowne exhibits the reactions of the 
several proteids before named. 


a. 


b. 


I. 

Soluble in water: 

( Aqueous solutions not coagulated by boiling. Peptones. 

) Aqueous solutions coagulated by boiling. Albumens. 

Insoluble in water: 

Soluble in a one per cent solution of sodic chloride. Globulins. 


II. 

a. Insoluble in water, but 

( Soluble in hydrochloric acid (0.1 p. c.) in the cold. 

- Soluble in hot spirit, Alkali-Albumen. 

/ Insoluble in hot spirit. Acid-Albumen. 

b. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid (0.1 p. c.) in the cold: 

Soluble in hydrochloric acid (0.1 p. c.) at sixty degrees C. Fibrin. 

c. Insoluble in hydrochloric acid (0.1 p. c.) at sixty degrees C. 

( Insoluble in strong acids. Coagulated Proteid. 

A Soluble in gastric juice. Albumen. 

( Insoluble in gastric juice. Amyloid. 


CEREBRIN. 

The formula of this substance is probably C^H^NOs. It was first 
prepared by Muller who made many analyses of it and deduced the 
formula given above. Otto discovered a substance resembling Muller's 
cerebrin but containing no nitrogen. It is prepared from brain substance 
by coagulating by heat an aqueous solution; the coagulum is washed with 


182 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


water and exhausted with hot alcohol and ether. This solution contains 
cholesterin, lecithin and cerebrin, which may be isolated by appropriate 
means. 

Prepared in this way, cerebrin is a white, odorless, tasteless powder, 
insoluble in cold water, alcohol or ether. Boiling water forms with it a 
pasty mass, but hot alkalies have no effect upon it. Cerebrin, when 
boiled with dilute mineral acids, is quickly decomposed, forming a sugary 
substance incapable of alcoholic fermentation, and another compound 
whose properties have not yet been studied. Under the microscope it 
shows granules or more frequently fibers more or less twisted. Solutions 
of cerebrin in hot alcohol are without action upon litmus paper. If some 
cerebrin be placed upon platinum foil and gradually heated, it becomes 
brown at 80°, then melts and finally burns with a reddish flame. 

LECITHIN—C^H^NPOg. 

Lecithin is found in both vegetables and animals, as a constituent 
of the fluids of the cell in the former and in all the principal fluids of 
the hitter. It is a constituent of spermatic fluid, of the fluids and yolk 
of the egg, of the blood, bile, transudates, nerves and brain. It may be 
prepared from any of the above mentioned substances, but is generally 
obtained from either the brain or the yolk of the egg, since these are 
rich in lecithin. 

From the Brain .—A brain freed from its membranes and blood¬ 
vessels is rubbed up with a little water ; the pulp kept at 0° is repeatedly 
extracted with ether; the residue is freed from any water or ether by 
pressure ; the cake is digested with alcohol at a temperature of 40° ; the 
mixture is filtered while warm; the filtrate is kept at or below 0° for 
some time, when impure lecithin containing cholesterin is deposited ; 
this is collected upon a filter and washed with cold absolute alcohol and 
ether. The mass is again dissolved in alcohol at 40° and the solution is 
surrounded by a freezing mixture, when lecithin is in part deposited 
while another part remains in the solution and is obtained by evapo¬ 
ration. 

Lecithin is a brittle, colorless substance which is soluble in alcohol, 
very freely soluble in hot alcohol, less but yet quite soluble in ether, also 
soluble in benzol, chloroform and bisulphide of carbon. In hot water it 
swells and forms a pasty mass but does not dissolve. 

If lecithin be boiled with baric hydrate, it is soon decomposed with 
the formation of cliolin or neurin, glycerophosphoric acid and the fatty 
acids, 

GLYCEROPHOSPHORIC ACID—C 3 H 9 P0 6 . 

This acid is found in the body only as it results from the decompo¬ 
sition of lecithin; it is found in the brain in cases of softening of that 


CONSTITUENTS OF THE BRAIN. 


183 


organ, in the blood and urine in leucocythaemia and in various transu¬ 
dates. It can be prepared from the yolks of eggs, from brain or from 
any substance containing lecithin. It may also be prepared by the direct 
action of glacial phosphoric acid upon glycerine. It is a syrupy fluid 
which at ordinary temperature slowly breaks up into glycerine and phos¬ 
phoric acid. It is a dibasic acid forming salts with various bases ; of 
these, the baric and calcic compounds are insoluble in absolute alcohol, 
soluble in water. The calcic salt is less soluble in hot than in cold water, 
and crystallizes from its solution in the latter on being raised to the 
boiling point. 

NEURIN OR CHOLIN— C 5 H 15 N 0 2 

is one of the products of the decomposition of lecithin, and may be pre¬ 
pared from brain tissue or the yolk of eggs. Oholin is a colorless syrup 
of a decidedly alkaline reaction soluble in water and alcohol, and uniting 
with acids to form salts readily decomposed again. The most character¬ 
istic of these is its double chloride with platinum or gold, which, how¬ 
ever, has more interest to the theoretical chemist than to the practical 
embalmer. The same may be said of the remaining constituents of 
cerebral and other nerve tissues for the composition of the spinal cord, 
of the medulla oblongata, of the nervous fibers and ganglia is very 
similar to that of the cerebral substance. The medulla oblongata con¬ 
tains the largest proportion of fatty bodies. 

The mineral salts constitute about five per cent by weight of the brain 
in a dry state. When the brain is in full action the elimination of phos¬ 
phorus appears to be greater than when it is in repose, since the quantity 
of alkaline phosphates in the urine increases. 

FLUIDS OF THE BODY. 

hleurin completes the list of the important proximate principles of the 
body other than those dissolved in its fluids which still remain to be con¬ 
sidered. The fluids are blood, bile, milk, saliva, gastric and pancreatic 
juices, lymph, chyle and urine, for mucus and the secretions of the skin 
have already been considered (pp 158-160). By far the most important 
of all these fluids is 

THE BLOOD, 

u*pon which depends so largely the purifying and nutrition of the body 
that modern science accepts the biblical statement that “ the blood is 
the life thereofIts morphology has been described on pp 78-82, but still 
further space will be required for its chemisty, for its variable and inva¬ 
riable constituents make it the most complex and interesting fluid 
known to modern chemistry. These constituents may be divided into: 


184 


THE CHEMISTRY OE THE HUMAN BODY. 


1. Inorganic salts, already considered, viz.: the sulphates, phos¬ 
phates, carbonates and chlorides of potassium, sodium, lime and mag¬ 
nesia with 68 per cent of water. 

2. Invariable J proximate 'principles, viz.: albumen, haemoglobin, 
stearic and palmitic acids, with glycerides and soaps of the same, lecithin, 
gtycero-phosphoric acid, glucose, uric acid, creatine and creatinine. 

3. Variable Constituents, viz.: formic, acetic, butyric acids, the 
biliary acids and pigments, uric acid and hypoxanthin, gluten and 
pseudo-gluten, lactic, hippuric and succinic acids, indican, inosite, 
leucin, tyrosin, and according to Verdeil, a peculiar reducing agent 
which upon heating gives off the odor of caramel. Hence in speaking of 
the composition of the blood it can only be stated very generally; but it 
is to be remarked that the composition of the blood is singularly uniform, 
considering the work it has to perform in supplying the materials for the 
replenishment of worn-out tissue, and the carrying away of the products 
arising from their destruction. 

4. Gases are oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic anhydride, free and in 
combination, and careful experiments show that there are 49 to 54 volumes 
of gas, free and combined, in 100 volumes of blood. Relatively, venous 
blood contains more carbonic acid and less oxygen than arterial; but, 
absolutely, the carbonic acid, in both arterial and venous blood, is always 
in excess of the oxygen. 

COMPOSITION 1000 PARTS OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 


Water. 688.00 

Solid constituents consisting of— 

Globulin and cell membrane, or stroma. 282.22 

Haematin (with iron). 16.75 

Fat. 2.31 

Extractive matters. 2.60 

Mineral matter (without iron). 8.12 

Consisting of— 

Chlorine. 1.686 

Sulphuric acid. 0.066 

Phosphoric acid. 1.134 

Phosphate of lime. 0.114 

Phosphate of magnesia.0.073 

Potassium. 3.328 

Sodium. 1.052 

Oxygen. 0.667 

- 312.00 


1000.00 



















CHEMISTRY OF THE BLOOD. 


185 


4 


LIQUOR sanguinis (Sp. Gr. 1028). 


Water.... . 902.90 

Solid constituents, consisting of— 

Albumen. 78.84 

Fibrin. 4.05 

Fat . 1.72 

Extractive matters. 3.94 88.54 

Mineral matter, viz: 

Chlorine. 3 .644 

Sulphuric acid.0.115 

Phosphoric acid. 0.191 

Phosphate of lime.'. 0.311 

Phosphate of magnesia. 0.222 

Potassium. 0.323 

Sodium. 3.341 

Oxygen. 0.403 8.55 


1000.00 

I. Sensible and physical properties: The blood is a viscid red 
fluid. As regards its color we have already noticed that this is dependent 
on the presence of red corpuscles, and not upon any coloring matter 
actually existing in a state of solution in the liquid portion or liquor 
sanguinis. The exact color of the blood varies : 

a.) it differs according to its source. Thus, the blood in the 
arteries is florid red, that in the veins being dull purple. This difference 
of color was at one time supposed to be physical, and due to alterations 
in the capacity (dependent on change of shape) of the red corpuscles for 
reflecting and transmitting light. It is no doubt true that the more 
spherical the globules, or, in other words, the more swollen the corpus¬ 
cles are with water, the darker colored is the blood. Hence it was taught 
that carbonic acid effected the expansion of the cells, thereby rendering 
them bi-convex and the blood dark colored, whilst oxygen effected the 
contraction of the cells, thereby rendering them bi-concave and the blood 
bright red. It is, however, quite evident that the color change is not 
simply physical, but chemical, and dependent on the state of oxidation 
of the haemoglobin or blood-coloring matter. Thus, in arterial blood the 
haemoglobin is oxidized and of a scarlet color, whilst in venous blood a 
part of the haemoglobin is deoxidized and of a purple color. Possibly the 
physical condition of the corpuscles, and also the presence of carbonic 
acid, may be elements in the case ; nevertheless, there can be but little 
doubt that the change of color is primarily, if not entirely, due to the 
oxidation and deoxidation of the haemoglobin. 
















THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


186 


(2.) The quantity of haemoglobin in the corpuscles, as well .as the 
proportion of corpuscles to serum, influences the color of the blood. 

(3.) The form of the corpuscles (See page 185). Thus the more 
spherical the corpuscles, the darker the blood appears. 

(4.) The thickness of the cell-wall of the corpuscles. Mulder sup¬ 
posed this to be the cause of the different colors of venous and arterial 
blood. He pointed out that potassic nitrate and iodide, and also sodic 
phosphate and carbonate, thicken the external membrane of the cor¬ 
puscles, and render the blood a lighter color. 

(5) Any reagents, like the caustic alkalies and certain organic acids 
that burst the corpuscles, render the blood brownish-red. 

The odor of blood is more marked when warm than when cold. By 
treating the blood with sulphuric acid, the odor becomes so apparent that 
it is often possible to name the animal from which the blood so treated was 
derived. The odor is more intense as well as marked in the blood of 
males than in that of females. It is supposed that this odor is due to a 
volatile fattv acid. 

Specific Gravity: Normal blood has a specific gravity varying from 
1052.0 to 1057.0. It is less in women, and especially in pregnant 
women than in men, and least of all in children. The specific gravity 
of venous blood is always somewhat higher than that of arterial. The 
blood from various animals, so far as the specific gravity is concerned, 
varies very little. The blood of the bullock was found to have a mean 
gravity of 1060.0, and that of sheep (seven experiments) 1053.0 (Tidy). 

The temperature of the blood is usually 100 degrees F. (37.8 degrees 
C.), but the blood on the left side of the heart is said to be one to two 
degrees F. higher than the blood on the right side, whilst the blood is 
warmed by passing through the liver and cooled by passing through the 
superficial capillaries. 

Chemism: The blood has invariably a slightly alkaline reaction when 
first drawn from the body, but it becomes acid after a short time, owing 
it is supposed, to the conversion of the sugar into lactic acid. Menstrual 
blood is said to be acid, but this is probably due to its intermixture with 
acid uterine or vaginal mucus. 

Coagulation: In from two to five minutes after the blood is drawn 
from the body it coagulates, and in from seven to fourteen minutes the 
whole mass becomes gelatinous. This coagulation is due to the fibrin 
present in a soluble state in living blood becoming insoluble in dead 
blood. The cause of this change is not fully understood. It has been 
suggested that it is due to the contact of foreign matter with the blood 
when it is drawn from the body. Others suppose that the inherent 
tendency of the fibrin to coagulate, is prevented during life by some 
inhibitory power resident in the walls of containing vessels. Others sup- 


CHEMISTRY OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 


187 


pose that coagulation of the fibrin does take place in the body, but that 
the tissue needing it absorbs the coagulated mass as soon as formed. 
Others believe coagulation is due to the escape of ammonia and carbonic 
acid when the blood is withdrawn from the body; whilst others hold 
(Schmidt and Buchanan) that the fibrin is not present at all in living 
blood, but that coagulation results when the blood is drawn, from the 
actual formation of fibrin by the union of two substances existing 
separately in the fluid and living blood. The solid mass now gradually 
contracts, forcing out a watery fluid for twelve to forty hours, or until 
coagulation is complete. (See putrefaction.) 

Blood corpuscles , or globules (See pp. 78-80), may be separated from 
the plasma by receiving fresh blood in a saturated solution of sodium 
sulphate, and filtering which leaves the globules on the filter. Placed in 
contact with water, they absorb the same, swell and become spherical, 
while at the same time their haemoglobin extravasates and colors the 
water; hence blood globules cannot be washed with pure water without 
alteration, and hence the use of the sulphate of soda solution (18® B.) 
suggested above. t 

Red globules treated with water become spherical and distended, the 
coloring matter and other elements pass into the water, and there 
remains a gelatinous mass of a pale tint called stroma, which is formed 
chiefly of albuminoid substances. The specific gravity of the red cor¬ 
puscles is, on the average, about 1.088, but is influenced by disease and 
other causes. 

The white corpuscles (See page 81) are also distended but not 
destroyed by water, or only after a long time; acetic acid contracts, 
and it should be remembered that these white corpuscles are found in 
other fluids of the body as well as in blood. 


ANALYSIS OF DRIED GLOBULES (MIXED). 


Haemoglobin. 

Albuminoid matter 

Lecithin. 

Cholesterin. 


Human 

Blood of 

blood. 

a dog. 

86.79 

86.50 

12.24 

12.55 

0.72 

0.59 

0.25 

0.86 


(Hoppe-Seyler.) 


CHEMISTRY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 

The albuminoid matters appear to be constituted chiefly, if not 
wholly, of globulins. 

1. Globulin is a substance similar in composition to, and in its 
properties closely resembling, albumen. It is found in large quantity 






188 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


(ten to fourteen per cent) in the crystalline lens, and for this reason is 
sometimes called crystallin. (See Albumens.) 

2. Hcemoglobin. Synonyms: Hcematoglohuline (Simon), Hmmato- 
crystalline (Lehmann), Cliromatine, Oxylmmoglohin, Erythrocruorme. 

This is the true, and the only coloring matter of the blood of verte¬ 
brate animals. Its percentage composition is stated as follows: 


Carbon .. 54.2 

Hydrogen. 1 ^ 

Nitrogen. 16.0 

Oxygen. 21.5 

Sulphur. 0.7 

Iron. 0.4 


100 


The color of haemoglobin depends upon its iron. About the middle 
of the last century, Vecentius Menghini published in the transactions of 
the academy of science of Bologna, an account of the experiments 
which establish this fact. In this account he is the first to state that, 
after washing the coloring matter from crassamentum, and separating it 
from the water by boiling, the coloring matter rises to the surface of the 
water, or subsides and leaves the water clear. After drying with a gentle 
heat, some of the coloring matter thus separated, and then repeatedly 
washing it, he found that it contained a considerable quantity of iron, 
which was attracted by the magnet. After exposing a large quantity of 
the coloring matter to an intense heat, he found in it a small piece of 
iron, of a spherical form, but hollow; and a powder which was attracted 
by the magnet, but appeared more like rust of iron than iron filings. 

The seat of this iron is proven to be in the coloring matter of the 
blood, as neither the serum nor fibrin contain it. According to his cal¬ 
culations, the blood of a healthy adult contains aboux two ounces of iron 
in its haemoglobin. 

Haemoglobin is the principal constituent of the red corpuscles of the 
blood of vertebrate animals. In man, the dog, pig, ox, and many other 
animals, the red corpuscles are almost pure haemoglobin, only traces of 
other substances being present; while in birds, this coloring matter is 
associated with an albuminous substance. Healthy human blood con¬ 
tains, on an average, twelve percent of haemoglobin; but it must be re¬ 
membered that the amount varies at different times of the day, and with 
other circumstances influencing the normal periodic changes of the 
individual. Arterial blood contains a somewhat larger amount than 
venous blood. In a person suffering with cholera, the blood, on account 
of its concentration, contains a much larger per cent of haemoglobin than 
is normal; while in leucocythaemia the per cent is decreased. (Hofmann.) 
Haemoglobin is more abundant in carnivora than in herbivora, in the 









HAEMOGLOBIN. 


189 


adult than in the young, and in the fasting than in the recently fed 
animal. 

Haemoglobin exists not only in the blood corpuscle, but also in some 
muscles, and in solution in the. blood of some invertebrates, as, for 
instance, in the angle-worm. Amorphous haemoglobin can be separated 
from the blood of man; crystals of haemoglobin are obtained with diffi¬ 
culty; while the blood of the dog, cat, rat, goose, and many other ani¬ 
mals, readily yields the crystalline form. 

Preparation: Haemoglobin may be prepared by mixing defibrinated 
blood, with an equal volume of water, and adding to the liquid one- 
quarter its volume of eighty per cent alcohol, and allowing the mixture 
to stand for twenty-four hours at 0°. Crystals then form in the liquid 
which must be removed by filtration, purified by solution, in pure 
water from which it may be obtained in crystals by a repetition of the 
process described above. 

Properties: Haemoglobin may be obtained from blood, with more or 
less ease, in a crystalline form (Haemato-crystalline of Funke.) 

The forms of the crystals vary in different animals. Thus they 
are: 

(a.) Prismatic in the blood of fish, in human blood, and in the 
blood of most animals. 

(A) Tetrahedral in the blood of the rat, mouse, and guinea-pig. 

(e.) Hexagonal in the blood of the squirrel. 

The formation of hemoglobin crystals is promoted by light, and by 
the chemical action of oxygen and carbonic acid on the corpuscles. It 
is especially to be noted that the crystals are not the result of the evap¬ 
oration of the water of the blood, inasmuch as they are formed more 
readily when the blood is diluted with twice its volume of water than 
when only mixed with one-half its volume. 

Haemoglobin is soluble in cold water, but not in hot. The prismatic 
crystals are soluble in 94 parts of cold water, the solution coagulating at 
147.2 degrees F. (64 degrees C.) while the tetrahedral crystals are soluble 
in 600 parts of cold water, the solution coagulating at 145.4 degrees F. 
(63 degrees C.) This coagulation consists not only in the coagulation 
of the albumen, but in the formation of haematin. The red solution is 
decolorized by chlorine, with the precipitation of white flakes (the 
chloro-hoematin of Mulder) and is changed to a brownish red color by 
carbonic oxide, and to a brown color by nitrogen. It may be said gen¬ 
erally, that whatever precipitates haemoglobin, destroys it. The feeblest 
acids, even carbonic, decompose it. 

The crystals of haemoglobin, as well as an aqueous solution of the 
same, have the bright red color of arterial blood. The aqueous solution 
gives a feebly acid reaction, and is* decomposed, with the formation of an 


190 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


albuminous substance which coagulates, on being heated to sixty-five 
degrees. 

The crystals of the aqueous solutions of haemoglobin contain oxygen, 
which is loosely held in combination, and which may be removed by 
means of the air-pump, or by various reducing agents. This oxygen is 
not reckoned in the ultimate analysis of this coloring matter, which lias 
already been given. The term, Oxyhcemoglobin, is often used to desig¬ 
nate this substance as it holds the oxygen, and in contradistinction to 
the haemoglobin from which this oxygen has been removed. After the 
removal of the oxygen, the coloring matter dissolves more readily in 
water, but does not recrystallize, or does so with great difficulty. The 
amount of this loosely combined oxygen which may be freed is constant; 
e. g. measured at a pressure of one metre, the oxygen given off from one 
gram, of pure crystals occupies 1.34 c.c. 

If now an aqueous solution of oxyhaemoglobin be treated with a cur¬ 
rent of nitrogen or hydrogen gas, the brilliant hue of the solution is 
replaced by a purple color; the loosely combined oxygen has been 
removed, and reduced hcemoglobin remains. The same effect is produced 
by adding to the solution of oxyhaemoglobin reducing agents, as the 
alkaline sulphides, ammoniacal solutions of tartrates (as tartaric acid 
added to a solution of ferrous sulphate, until a precipitate no longer 
occurs on the addition of sodic hydrate, and then the whole made alka¬ 
line with amnionic hydrate), finely divided tin or other metals. 

The spectroscope reveals the fact that arterial blood contains much 
oxyhaemoglobin, and but little reduced; and when all the oxyhaemoglobin 
disappears from the blood death follows from asphyxia. (See poisons.) 
As the blood leaves the left side of the heart, nearly all of its haemoglo¬ 
bin exists in the oxidized condition, but during its passage through the 
arteries and capillaries this becomes reduced. If a solution of this 
reduced haemoglobin be shaken with air, oxygen is reabsorbed, and 
oxyhaemoglobin is again formed, as is proved by the change of the solu¬ 
tion from purple to scarlet, and the difference of its lines in the spectro¬ 
scope, which shows most delicately the difference between the two 
substances. 

Besides oxygen, haemoglobin unites with other substances in a simi¬ 
lar manner, and it must be remembered that the association of these sub¬ 
stances with haemoglobin does not apparently break up the arrangement 
of its molecule (Vaughan). Carbonic oxide, nitrogen dioxide and cyan- 
hydric acid are among the substances which act this way, as may be 
proven by treating a warm, concentrated aqueous solution of oxyhaemo¬ 
globin for a short time with a current of carbonic oxide (CO); the oxy¬ 
gen will be liberated and an equal volume of the other gas will be taken 
up. Cool the sol ration to 0°; add one-fourth its volume of cold alcohol; 


HjEMATIN. 


191 


allow to stand for twenty-four hours, exposed to a temperature at or be¬ 
low the freezing point, when beautiful, purple colored, four-sided prisms 
of this compound will appear. These crystals are more permanent and 
less freely soluble in water than those of oxyhemoglobin. 

This combination of carbonic oxide with hemoglobin is stronger 
than that of oxygen with the same; thus, while oxygen is readily re¬ 
moved from oxyhemoglobin by a current of carbonic oxide, the latter 
is but slowly freed from its compound by being treated with oxygen gas. 
Continued agitation with oxygen converts carbonic oxide-hemoglobm 
into oxyhemoglobin; probably the carbonic oxide (CO) is first changed 
into carbonic acid (C0 2 ). 

An insoluble form of hemoglobin is sometimes found in cysts, etc. 
To this the name of hematoidrin, or methemoglobin has been given. 
It is found in blood after decomposition, in the brown fluids of hydrocele, 
and ovarian cysts as a brick red deposit, consisting of corpuscles insoluble 
in water and alcohol, and permanent at ordinary temperatures, but decom¬ 
posed by acids and alkalies. Chemically it appears to be a body inter¬ 
mediate between haemoglobin and haematin next to be considered. 

Hcematin. By the action of heat, or of mineral and other acids, and 
also of alkalies, etc., haemaglobin is converted into haematin (haemato- 
sin) (C 68 H 70 N 8 Fe 2 O 10 ). This body, which contains 12.8 per cent of iron 
oxide, and was once supposed to be a constituent, and the true coloring 
matter of the red corpuscles, is now proved to be merely a product of the 
decomposition of the haemoglobin. 

Haematin is an amorphous, blackish-brown substance, without taste 
or color. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, acetic ether, in all oils, 
or even in the concentrated mineral acids ; whilst it is soluble in alcohol 
acidulated with either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and in aqueous or 
alcoholic solutions of the alkalies 01 ; of their carbonates. The brown 
acid alcoholic solution, when treated with an alkali, appears red by re¬ 
flected, and green by transmitted light. It is decomposed by chlorine 
and by boiling with nitric acid. 

Hsematin is frequently found in old blood extravasations and in the 
intestines. In the former case it comes from the decomposition of 
haemoglobin, and in the latter from the action of the gastric juice upon 
the blood contained in food. It also appears in the urine in certain dis¬ 
eased conditions of the kidneys and after arsenical poisoning. Hamiatin 
is precipitated from alkaline solutions by chloride of barium; and by the 
action of common salt and glacial acetic acid is converted into hasmatin 
hydrochloride, or Teichman's hsemin crystals. These are used as a test 
for blood, and are prepared by adding to a cold, aqueous solution of 
blood a few drops of glacial acetic acid and cautiously evaporating until 
small, rhombic, brownish-black crystals are obtained. These are insol- 


192 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


uble in water, alcohol, ether and chloroform ; soluble in alkalies and in 
alcohol acidulated with sulphuric acid. 

BLOOD PLASMA AND SERUM. 

Concerning blood plasma, Vaughan very happily says: “The prin¬ 
cipal office of the red corpuscle is to serve as a vehicle for carrying oxy¬ 
gen to the various tissues of the body; but there must be some agent to 
convey the corpuscle, to bring to the tissues material for repair and to 
remove the debris. Oxygen alone can not support life; there must be 
something to combine with the oxygen in order to produce animal heat. 
Moreover, this combustion must go on in every part of the body; even if 
it be true that the solid tissues enter but little into those chemical 
changes whereby life is supported, it is still necessary that combustion 
should take place in every organ. Let us suppose that the blood as it 
leaves the heart contains all of the oxygen and all of the material to be 
consumed, still life could not be maintained did this oxidation become 
complete immediately, or take place in one organ only; the muscles of 
the arm and of every other part of the body alike need the production of 
heat within themselves before they can contract and relax; the brain 
requires combustion within its substance, whether of its substance or not, 
before it can act. The plasma serves as the channel for the transmission 
of the material which supports life and of that which is the product of 
decay. It is, as Bernard said, the internal medium which bears the same 
relation to the tissues as the external medium, the world, does to the 
individual. The composition of the plasma is necessarily very variable: 
at one time it may be bearing that which strengthens the body and ele¬ 
vates the mind; at another time it may contain poisons which injure both 
body and mind.” 

Blood plasma, or liquor sanguinis, kept at a temperature below 0° 
is a viscid, yellowish, strongly alkaline fluid; but when the tem¬ 
perature is allowed to rise above that, the plasma is slowly transformed 
into a jelly-like mass, which gradually contracts and presses out a fluid 
to which the name of serum has been given. The serum of the blood is 
then the liquor sanguinis, or plasma minus its fibrin. 

Properties: A straw colored fluid in health, becoming, in certain 
diseases, such as icterus and pneumonia, of an intensely yellow color. 
Its average specific gravity is 1.028, and, in this respect is singularly 
uniform. Its reaction is alkaline, the alkalinity being due to the presence 
of carbonate and phosphate of soda. Blood serum is also straw-colored 
and alkaline. It coagulates at 170 degrees F. (76.1 degrees C.) 

Water .—The quantity of water in blood varies. Thus there is more 
in the blood of women (especially during pregnancy) than in that of 
men, and more in those of advanced age than in the young. The pro- 


CHEMISTRY OE BLOOD PLASMA. 


193 


portion present is influenced by disease. Thus there is a great diminu¬ 
tion in the quantity of water in the blood in cholera. And further, 
arterial blood contains more water than venous blood, while in both 
venous and arterial blood the actual proportion of water varies hourly 
with* the food, exercise and atmospheric changes. Nevertheless, a re¬ 
markable uniformity is noticeable, for that which lessens the water ex¬ 
cites thirst; while, if an excess of water be added to the blood, the urine 
and sweat get rid of it. 

Albumen. —C 72 H m N 18 S022. This varies from 60 to 70 parts per 
1,000 of blood. It is the cause of the coagulation of the serum by heat. 
It may be obtained in a soluble state by evaporating the serum below 120 
degrees F. (48.9 C.), while, if the serum be evaporated at a higher tem¬ 
perature, the albumen becomes insoluble in water at ordinary pressure. 
(See Albumens.) 

Seyler considers that the albumen is not present in blood in a state 
of solution, but merely in a state of fine subdivision. Others believe it * 
to be present as an albuminate of soda, while Enderlin believes it to be 
held in solution by the sodic phosphate. The blood of women contains 
more albumen than the blood of men, while arterial blood contains less 
albumen than venous. The quantity of albumen in the blood is de¬ 
creased in such diseases as Bright’s disease, scurvy, puerperal fever, etc., 
while it is increased in cholera, intermittent fever, etc. 

Fibrin, once supposed to be held merely in solution in the blood, is 
now generally believed to be formed by the reaction of two other sub¬ 
stances to which the names of fibrino-plastin, or paraglobulin, and fibri¬ 
nogen has been given. Fibrin may be readily obtained from blood by 
whipping it with twigs, on which the fibrin forms in fine, white shreds; 
its quantity, on the average, is between two and three parts in 1,000. It 
is usually increased in inflammatory affections, as rheumatism, pneu¬ 
monia, etc., and decreased in anaemic diseases, as typhus, chlorosis, etc. 
Its spontaneous and speedy coagulation distinguishes it from all anal¬ 
ogous substances. This property of coagulation is thought by Denis to 
be due not to fibrin, but to a substance named by him plasmin, upon 
which the coagulation of blood plasma evidently belongs; but plasmin 
has been proven to be a compound body, for neither serum nor effused 
serum, clots when kept separately ; but if the two be mixed, coagulation 
occurs just as it does in plasma. Thus, if some filtered hydrocele fluid 
be kept at from 38° to 40°, no coagulum appears, and the fluid will re¬ 
main clear until decomposition takes place; but, if a little blood serum 
be added, the mixture soon clots. Plasmin then is a compound containing 
at least two substances, one of which is present in serum and the other 
in hydrocele fluid. By the labors of A. Schmidt each of these has been 
isolated, and the one from serum is known as fibrino-plastin, paraglobulin, 
13 


/ 


194 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


or fibrino-plastic globulin; while the one from hydrocele fluid is known 
as fibrinogen. Both of these are present in plasma, and the plasmin of 
Denis is a mixture of fibrino-plastin and fibrinogen. 

Fibrinoplastin is insoluble in pure water, but is soluble in water con¬ 
taining much oxygen and in dilute solutions of sodic chloride or phos¬ 
phate. Dissolved in the above solutions, fibrinoplastin retains its active 
properties; so that if such a solution be added to hydrocele fluid, coag¬ 
ulation will take place. It is also soluble in acetic acid, but solution 
by this solvent destroys the activity of fibrinoplastin. 

Fibrinogen resembles very closely paraglobulin and may be prepared 
from serous exudates by carbonic acid, just as globulin may be precipi¬ 
tated from the serum of the blood. When redissolved in an alkaline so¬ 
lution, ahd added to any fluid containing globulin, it acts as a coagulator 
of that fluid, and gives rise to the development of a clot of fibrin in it. 
In accordance with what has just been stated, serum of blood which has 
completely coagulated may be kept in one vessel, and pericardial fluid in 
another, for an indefinite period, if spontaneous decomposition be pre¬ 
vented, without the coagulation of either, but let them be mixed, and 
coagulation sets in. 

Thus it seems to be clear, that the coagulation of the blood, and the 
formation of fibrin, are caused primarily by the interaction of two sub¬ 
stances (or two modifications of the same substance), globulin and fibrin¬ 
ogen, the former of which exists in the serum of the blood, and in some 
tissues of the body; while the latter is known, at the present, only in 
the plasma of the blood, of the lymph, and of the chyle, and fluids de¬ 
rived from them. 

Fibrin is insoluble in water, alcohol and ether, soluble in dilute al¬ 
kalies forming albuminates. When digested with a two per cent solution 
of muriatic acid, fibrin is transformed into a semi-transparent, jelly- 
like mass. By the action of gastric juice, fibrin is converted into pep¬ 
tone, the change being a chemical one and not one of simple solution. 
If the gastric juice contains but little pepsin the products of the digestion 
of fibrin with this fluid will be precipitated by neutralizing the solution. 
By the action of pancreatic juice, fibrin is transformed into peptone, 
tyrosin and leucin. Fibrin contains 52.6 per cent of C, 17.4 of N, 21.8 
of 0, 7.0 of H, and 1.2 of S. 

Fatty matters .—The proportion of fat in blood is about 1.6 parts in 
1000. The quantity is not increased by a want of fat food. Arterial 
blood contains less fat than venous, and the portal vein more fat than 
the jugular. The quantity of fat (and especially of cholesterin) is in¬ 
creased at the commencement of every acute disease, and also in some 
chronic diseases. 

Most of the fatty matter present in the blood is in a saponified form. 


FLUIDS OF THE BODY. 


195 


It would appear that the fats peculiar to various organs exist ready 
formed in the blood, as e. g. cholesterin (the fat of bile) cerebrin and 
the phosphorized fat of the brain, together with oleic, margaric and 
stearic acids, chiefly Saponified but also in a free state. 

These fatty matters of the blood not only supply fat where it is 
needed, but serve by their oxidation to maintain the temperature of the 
body. 

Extractive matter .—This term includes creatin and creatinin, glu¬ 
cose, urea, uric acid, hippuric and lactic acids, and certain other bodies. 

Alcohol is said to be always present in blood in minute quantity, 
and is supposed to be formed by the fermentation of the sugar. 

Mineral matters .—The percentage composition of the ash of serum 


may be thus stated : 

Sodic chloride.61.08 

Potassic chloride. 4.08 

Sodic carbonate (Na 2 CO). 28.87 

Hydricodi-sodicphosphate (Na 2 HPO,). 3.19 

Potassic sulphate. 2.78 

100.00 


The proportion of mineral ingredients is greater in the blood of 
adults than in that of the young, greater in arterial than in venous 
or jugular. The quantity is influenced by diet and by disease. 
There is a larger quantity present in the blood of the cat, goat and sheep 
than in the blood of men, birds and pigs, whilst a smaller quantity is 
found in the blood of dogs and rabits than in other animals. 

The iron (a never failing constituent of blood) belongs exclusively to 
the red corpuscles. 

CHYLE AND LYMPH. 


Chyle is the fluid of the lacteals, the lymphatics of the intestines. It 
is transparent after fasting, but milk-like during digestion. This milk¬ 
iness is due to the presence of minute fatty particles termed the molecu¬ 
lar base of the chyle. (See digestion.) 

Lymph is the fluid of the lymphatics. It is a clear, colorless, faintly 
alkaline, albuminous liquid, having no fatty particles, such as occur in 
chyle in suspension. (See page 82.) 

Percentage composition of lymph and chyle. 


Water. 

Albumen. 

Fibrin. 

Animal extractive matter 

Fatty matter. 

Salts. 


LYMPH. 

CHYLE. 

90.237 

99.536 

3.516 

1.200 

0.370 

0.120 

1.565 

1.559 

3.601 

trace 

0.711 

0.585 

100.000 

100.000 


i 
















19G 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


We remark: 

(1.) That lymph and chyle are substantially alike, except that chyle 
contains fat, and lymph none or nearly none. 

(2.) Lymph and chyle are substantially, like blood, the difference being 
only one of degree. In fact these liquids probably are rudimental blood, 
containing corpuscles in process of development into red corpuscles. 
The difference between the lymph and chyle and the blood becomes less 
and less as the two former pass through the thoracic duct, or in other 
words as they approach the place where they are to be mingled with the 
blood. 

(3.) Blood, lymph, and chyle agree, in that they contain fibrin and 
coagulate spontaneously, although the clot of lymph and chyle is softer 
than that of blood. Moreover, in this property of spontaneous coagula¬ 
tion they differ from all other animal fluids. 

MILK. 

Milk is a liquid secreted by the female mammary gland after partur¬ 
ition. Microscopically it consists of fat globules, surrounded'by an 
albuminous envelope, having a diameter of 0.0014 inches, floating in a 
perfectly transparent fluid. 

Composition per 100 parts of human milk compared with that of the 


cow. (Tidy.) 

/■-WOMAN’S MILK.-s cow’s MILK. 

Max. Min. Average. Average. 

Casein. 4.3G 2.97 3.52 3.64 

Butter. 5.18 4.45 4.02 3.55 

Sugar of milk. 4.43 3.29 4.27 4.70 

Various salts. 0.23 0.38 0.28 0.81 


Total solids. 14.20 11.09 12.09 12.70 

Water. 85.80 88.91 87.91 87.30 


Total. 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 


The reaction of fresh milk is variously stated. It is probably nearly 
neutral or very slightly alkaline, owing to the soda holding the casein 
in solution (albuminate). After a time it becomes acid and then coagu¬ 
lates. This action is rapid if the weather be warm and the air electrical. 
It is occasioned by the conversion of the milk-sugar into lactic acid, 
under the influence of the nitrogenized body, casein, which acid effects 
the precipitation of the casein (lactic fermentation). The clot, con¬ 
taining the milk globules in mechanical admixture, constitutes “curds” 
and the clear liquid “whey.” 

Normal milk contains no albumen, but colostrum (that is, the first 
milk secreted after pregnancy) usually abounds in it. 

Human milk has an average specific gravity of 1030. 



















DIGESTIVE FLUIDS. 


197 


DIGESTION. 

Digestion is a process of solution, i. e. of rinsing or drenching the 
food with various secretions so as to extract from it the nutritious por¬ 
tions, and convey them into the circulation. 

To carry out this rinsing process perfectly, the food is first, in most 
cases, cooked, and then chewed. In this way a perfect admixture of the 
materials with the various solvent agents is effected. 

The following diagram represents the amount of digestive fluids 
secreted daily, and the proportions of their chief constituents. 


Saliva. 

Gastric juice... 

Pancreatic fluid. 

Bile. 

Intestinal mucus 

Total. 

And the second diagram explains the part performed by each in the pro¬ 
cess of digestion. 


Quantity 

Secreted. 

Solid 

Matters. 

Active Principles. 

. 2.53 lbs. 

231 grs. 

116 grs. of ptyalin. 

.14.11 “ 

2,963 “ 

1,482 “ of pepsin. 

. 0.44 “ 

309 “ 

39 “ of pancreatin. 

. 3.53 “ 

1,234 “ 

1,058 “ of org. ferment. 

0.44 “ 

46 “ 

28 “ of org. ferment. 

.22.05 lbs. 

4,783 grs. 

2,723 grs. of special solvents, 


TABLE OF DIGESTIVE FERMENTS. 


NAME. 

1. Ptyalin, or salivary diastase con¬ 

tained in the saliva. 

2. Pepsin contained in gastric juice. 

3. Curdling ferment contained in gas¬ 

tric juice. 

4. Trypsin contained in pancreatic 

juice. 

5. Curdling ferment found in pancre¬ 

atic juice. 

6. Pancreatic diastase found in pan¬ 

creatic juice. 

7. Emulsive ferment found in pancre¬ 

atic juice. 

8. Bile poured into duodenum. 

9. Invertin found in intestinal juice. 

10. Curdling ferment found in intes¬ 
tinal juice. 

9 

Saliva is the fluid secreted 
parotid, the submaxillary, 
the twenty-four hours may 


FUNCTION. 

1. Changes starch into dextrine and 

glucose. 

2. In acid fluids changes albuminoids 

into peptones. 

3. Coagulates casein. 

4. In alkaline solutions transforms 

proteids to peptones. 

5. Coagulates milk casein. 

6. Changes starch into dextrine and 

glucose. 

7. Emulsifies fats. 

8. Assists in emulsifying fats. 

9. Converts cane sugar into interved 

sugar. 

10. Coagulates casein. 


SALIVA. 

by the various salivary glands, such as the 
the sublingual, etc. Two to three pints in 
be taken as the average quantity secreted. 















198 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


The exact amount, however, varies considerably. The quantity is de¬ 
creased by fasting, and increased by the stimulus of food in the mouth, 
or by the mere mental impression connected with the sight or even the 
thought of food. 

Composition per 1000 parts of saliva (Frerichs): 


.994.1 

\ Organic. 3.61} ^ q 

I Inorganic.2.29 f. 

1000.0 

The organic constituents of saliva consist of an albuminoid substance 
called ptyalin which constitutes about one-fourth of the total solid mass 
of the saliva, together with fat, epithelium, etc. The ptyalin is said to 
be contained more largely in the saliva, secreted by the submaxillary 
than by the other salivary glands. The inorganic constituents consist of 
phosphates of lime, magnesia, and soda (the deposition of the earthy 
phosphates on the teeth by the action of the ammonia of the breath con¬ 
stituting what is called “ tartar ”) of alkaline chlorides, and a small but an 
ever present quantity of potassic sulphocyanide, said to be increased when 
sulphur is taken internally. 

Properties: Saliva is a clear, feebly alkaline fluid. Its specific grav¬ 
ity varies from 1002 to 1009. The alkalinity of the secretion from the 
parotid is said to be more marked than that from the other salivary 
glands. During digestion, moreover, its alkalinity is increased. In 
certain diseased conditions the saliva becomes distinctlv acid. 

(a) As a mechanical agent its action depends on the presence of the 
ferment body, “ ptyalin,” by which the insoluble starch is transformed 
into soluble dextrin and glucose. This conversion of the starch is 
retarded rather than promoted by the gastric juice. (£) The saliva may 
also, being an alkaline fluid, assist in emulsifying the fat. 

t GASTRIC JUICE. 

The gastric juice is a fluid secreted from the glands of the stomach, 
under the influence of exciting causes, such as the introduction of food 
and other mechanical irritants, and more especially by soluble irritants, 
such as salts, etc. The quantity secreted in the twenty-four hours is 
variously stated at from 10 to 20 pints. 

Composition of human gastric juice per 1,000 parts : 

Water. 994.4 

Solid constituents. j Org^c/pepsin) 8.3). 5 6 


Water 

Solids 


1000.0 













GASTRIC JUICE. 


199 


The salts present in the gastric fluid consists of calcic, sodic and 
potassic chlorides, and earthy phosphates. 

The two important constituents of the gastric fluid are the free acid 
and the pepsin. 

(«) As regards the free acid, some investigators maintain it to he 
lactic acid, and others hydrochloric acid. M. Verneuil states that he 
has found both acids present in a free state, the hydrochloric acid being 
1.7 parts in 1,000 and the lactic acid in the proportion of 1 part of lactic 
to 9 parts of hydrochloric acid. The quantity of acid is increased by 
taking alcohol, and decreased by taking sugar. 

The fact probably is that both acids are usually present, the hydro¬ 
chloric, as a rule, largely predominating. In some cases, moreover, the 
presence of acetic, phosphoric and butyric acids has been clearly demon¬ 
strated. 

(b) Pepsin is an albuminoid body, soluble in water and insoluble in 
alcohol. Its solution is precipitated by corrosive sublimate, by solutions 
of tannic acid and by lead salts, and by alcohol. When a solution of 
pepsin is boiled, its action as a solvent of albuminoid matter is destroyed. 

Properties: The gastric juice is a clear, acid, colorless fluid. It 
has a specific gravity varying from 1002.2 to 1002.4. It is miscible in 
water. It coagulates albumen. Its action is powerfully antiseptic. Its 
solution does not become turbid on boiling. 

The action of the gastric juice as a solvent of albuminoid matters, 
such as fibrin, coagulated albumen, etc., depends on the joint presence 
of the acid and of an albuminoid ferment body—pepsin. A certain 
temperature (100° F.) and a perfect admixture of the fluid and food, as 
e. q ., by mastication of the food and the muscular action of the stomach, 
etc., are also necessary conditions. Thus, after a time, varying from two 
to six hours, complete chymification of the food is effected, the fibrinous 
and albuminous constituents being converted into different peptones or 
soluble forms of albumen, such as albumino-peptones, fibrino-peptones, 
gelatino-peptones, etc., all of which differ from common albumen, 
m their solubility, in being neither coagulated by heat, acid, nor 
spirit, and in their capability of being dialysed (albuminose of Mialhe). 
The composition of the chyme depends, of course, largely on the food, 
but it has the general appearance of a thick fluid, consisting of a solid, 
undigested portion, suspended in a liquid of a more or less yellow color, 
and of a more or less disagreeable odor. 

The gastric juice has no action on starch or fat. 

THE PANCREATIC FLUID. 

This fluid, which in many respects is like the saliva (but unlike it in 
containing no sulphocyanides), is the secretion of the pancreas, a gland 
closely resembling the salivary glands, but located in the abdomen. 


200 


THE CHEMISTRY OE THE HUMAN BODY. 


Composition of pancreatic fluid. 


W ater. 

Solids (Pancreatin).•.12.71 ) 

Inorganic. 6.84 i 


980.45 

19.55 

1000.00 


Properties: A colorless fluid; specific gravity, 1008 to 1009. Its 
reaction is usually stated as alkaline, but this, so far as the fresh fluid is 
concerned, is doubtful. Its action depends on the presence of an or¬ 
ganic principle, called pancreatin, an albuminoid ferment body, consti¬ 
tuting two-thirds of its total solids. Its action is two-fold: ( 1 ) It emul¬ 
sifies fat, converting it into a milky liquid, thereby rendering it capable 
of absorption by the lacteals; and ( 2 ) it converts starch into glucose, 
and so effects its solution. 

THE BILE 


is the fluid secreted by the cells of the liver and in all the omnivora 
and carnivora is a brownish or reddish-yellow, bitter, viscid fluid whose 
chemical composition as given by Frerichs is as follows: 


Water 


Solids 


Biliary acids combined with alkalies (Bilin, etc.). 

Fat. 

- Cliolesterin. 

Mucus and coloring matters. 

Salts (Inorganic). 


.91.51 
. 9.2 
. 2.6 
.29.8 
. 7.7 


859.2 


140.8 


1000.00 

It is feebly alkaline when taken from the gall bladder. Its inorganic 
salts are sodic chloride, calcic and sodic phosphate, oxide of iron and 
traces of copper. Its organic acids are mucic, cholic, glycocholic and 
taurocholic acids, and its chief organic compounds are cholesterin, 
lecithin and the bile pigments and the soda salts of its acids. 

The quantity of solid matter is greater in the bile of the young than 
in that of the old; and is in excess in such diseases as cholera, heart-dis¬ 
ease, abdominal plethora, etc., whilst it is less than normal in severe 
inflammation, diabetes, etc. 

Bile consists essentially of resinoid matter, coloring matter, and the 
salts of its acids. 

( 1 ) Resinoid matter (Bilin). This consists of the soda or potash 
salts of two, or one of two, acids, one of which contains sulphur and the 
other none, and taurin (C 2 II 7 NSO 2 ). 

(2) Glycocholic acid and its salts are found in the bile of man and the 
ox, but not in the dog whether fed upon animal, vegetable, or mixed food. 
The pure acid may be obtained in crystals which are soluble in hot and 
cold water and absolute alcohol, but insoluble in ether. The alkaline 
glycocholates are also soluble in water and alcohol; the others not so. 
















BILE CONSTITUENTS. 


201 


Cholinic acid, glycocoll and cholaic acid are the more important decom¬ 
position products of glycocholic acid. 

(3) Taurocliolic acid, also known as cholinic acid, is found in con¬ 
nection with the glycocholates in human and ox bile, from which it may 
be extracted in tine crystals which on exposure to the air deliquesce and 
become an acid syrup. Taurocliolic acid readily combines with water 
to form cholaic acid and taurin (C 2 II 7 N0 2 S). 

(4) Taurin is found in the bile of the gall bladder combined with 
cholaic acid and like glycocoll is reabsorbed from the intestines. It may 
be isolated in large, colorless, four-sided prisms which are insoluble in 
absolute alcohol but are dissolved by dilute and hot and cold water. 
From its composition, especially from the fact that it contains sulphur, 
carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen it undoubtedly is derived from the albu¬ 
minoids. 

(5) Cholesterin ought to be mentioned in connection with the bile 
since it constitutes the bulk of the gall-stones, or concretions formed from 
bile in the gall bladder. It is a crystallizable compound which chemically 
resembles the fats, in that it is destitute of nitrogen, readily inflammable, 
soluble in alcohol or ether, and entirely insoluble in water. Its formula 
is C^II^O and it is widely distributed in both the vegetable and animal 
worlds. It exists in peas, beans, Indian corn, and probably in all seeds. 
It has been found in the brain, spleen, bile, etc. It also occurs in many 
pathological formations such as pus, hydrocele fluid, the contents of 
various cysts, tubercles, and transudations of every kind. It is present 
in human milk, in the colorless corpuscles of the blood, and in the semi¬ 
nal fluid. Its existence in the human urine is due to a pathological con¬ 
dition, but it is a normal constituent of human feces. 

(6) Bile Pigments. The coloring matter of the bile is termed 
eholochrome. This is a mixture of a green pigment, insoluble in chloro¬ 
form, called billverdin (C 16 H 18 N 24 0 4 ) and a brown pigment, soluble in 
chloroform, called cholophaein. Of this latter there are two modifica¬ 
tions, viz.: the red, bilirubin (C 16 H 18 N 2 0 3 ) and the brown biliprasin, 
C 10 H 22 N 2 O, 

(7) A blue coloring matter has also been described. 

The action of the bile is involved in much obscurity; it does not con¬ 
vert starch into sugar, like the saliva and pancreatic fluid (doubted by 
Wittich); it does not dissolve fibrin like the gastric juice; it does not 
emulsify fat, or at any rate to the same extent, as does the secretion 
from the pancreas. 

Some regard the function of the bile as the medium, by direct ex¬ 
cretion, for the separation of an excess of carbon and hydrogen from the 
blood, thereby effecting its purification. This is manifestly its purpose 
in intra-uterine life. Nevertheless, that it is more than a mere excre- 


202 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


mentitious fluid, and plays an actual part in digestion, there can be but 
little doubt. Some have suggested that its function is to emulsify fat; 
others that it assists the absorption of fat by moistening th j intestinal 
mucous membrane; others that it neutralizes the acid peptones from 
the stomach; others that its antiseptic power prevents the decom¬ 
position of the food as it passes through the bowels; others that it acts 
as a natural purgative by its stimulating effect on the intestines. The 
liver doubtless performs more than one function, and some of these will 
be discussed more at length under the head of poisons and poisoning. 

INTESTINAL JUICE. 

From the duodenal fluids a ferment can be obtained by extraction 
with glycerine, which bears a close resemblance to, and probably is iden¬ 
tical in composition with the succus pyloricus. It is strongly alkaline, 
and on being acidified with hydrochloric acid digests fibrin. Intestinal 
juice also possesses two other ferments, by means of which it converts 
starch and cane sugar into grape sugar. The secretion of the large intes¬ 
tines is also alkaline, is tenacious, turbid, contains albumen and is, out¬ 
side of the body without action upon starch, albumen or fat. The food 
as it enters the large intestine has an acid reaction due to fermentation 
as may be proven by the nature of the intestinal gases which vary in 
kind and amount with the food. The secretions of the small intestines 
are alkaline and contain three-fourths of a per cent of solid matter. 

According to Bidder, flesh and albumen coagulated by heat, and in¬ 
closed in the intestines by ligature, soften, dissolve, and are digested; 
consequently, the intestinal fluid completes the digestion of nitrogenous 
substances. Thiry found in pure intestinal fluid from a dog: 


Water. 97.585 

Albuminates . 0.802 

Other organic substances... .•. 0.784 

Inorganic substances. 0.879 


100.000 

The gases of the smaller intestines are chiefly carbon dioxide and 
hydrogen. In the larger intestine these gases are mingled with methane, 
and traces of hydrogen sulphide; the methane amounts to as high as 50 
per cent of this volume when the food is vegetable. 

Recapitulation: Perfect digestion requires normal secretion on the 
part of the salivary, pseudo-follicular, peptic and Brunner's glands 
as well as the presence of bile and pancreatic juice. The part performed 
by each of these is well shown in the table on page 497—but it would be 
well to reconsider the disposition of each kind of food again at this 
point. 







FOODS AND PEPTONES. 


203 


(«) The Inorganic salts as a rule pass through and leave the system 
in the form in which they entered it. 

(h) The Fats, or oleaginous hydrocarbons are digested by the aid of 
the pancreatic juice, mainly in the small intestines, though its action is 
assisted by the secretions of Brunner’s glands and the bile. 

(o) The Saccharine carbohydrates by the action of ptyalin and the 
intestinal ferments are converted into assimilable glucose and inverted 
sugar. 

(d) The Nitrogenous or Albuminoid foods are converted into 
peptones (See table, page 181) which are chemically hydrated albumen- 
oids, or hydroxyl-albuminates prepared by the action of pepsin and trypsin 
on vegetable and animal fibrin, albumen, etc. They contain relatively less 
carbon and more hydrogen than the albuminoids from which they are 
derived and their other differences are well shown in the annexed table : 


PEPTONES. 

1. Unaffected by heat. 

2. Not coagulated by mineral acids. 

3. Not coagulated by alkalies. 

4. Trommer’s test gives reddish violet 

lluid. 


ALBUMEN. 

1. Coagulates at 72°. 

2. Mineral acids coagulate. 

3. Alkalies coagulate. 

4. Trommer’s test gives violet fluid. 


EXCREMENTITIOUS PRODUCTS. 

The feces consist of undigested parts of the food and mixed 
with secretions and transudations more or less changed by the various 
physical and chemical agents to which they have been subjected. 
The proportion of the feces to the food varies with the kind of the 
latter, the condition of the digestive fluids and the movements of 
the intestines. Normally, the feces of man are equal in weight to about 
one-eighth of the food. 

The color of the feces varies with the food and with the action of the 
liver. After a meal consisting of flesh, the feces are dark brown; 
while after an exclusive milk diet they are yellow. When the biliary 
secretion is arrested, the feces are light colored, and when this secretion 
is excessive, they may be dark or green. In many diseases the color of 
the excrement is decidedly changed; thus in diarrhea, the stools are 
light colored and, in obstruction of the bile duct, may be perfectly 
colorless. From the feces traces of unchanged bile-pigments may often 
be obtained. IBematin is frequently present and in carnivora comes 
from the flesh of the food and, in any animal, may be present from 
bleeding of the walls of the alimentary canal. Only when the bleeding 
is in the lower part of the large intestine, is unchanged blood present in 
the stools. 

The odor of the stools is due to indol , valerianic or butyric acid 
and hydric sulphide. Normally, the odor is due to indol, C 8 II 7 N. This 


204 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


substance is obtained as a final product in the reduction of indigo ; it is 
a weak base, forms large colorless crystalline plates, which are freely 
soluble in hot, sparingly, in cold water. Indol is often formed during 
pancreatic digestion, but is supposed to be due to the presence of 
bacteria, since its formation is arrested if the pancreatic digestion be 
carried on in the presence of salicylic acid. Indol is recognized by its 
odor and by its reaction with nitrous acid. With this acid even very di¬ 
lute solutions of indol produce a red color. 

Normally, the reaction of the feces is neutral or alkaline ; but in 
certain diseased conditions, it is acid. The amount of solids varies from 
174 to 317 parts in a thousand. The solids consist of earthy salts, 
excretin, taurin, cholalic acid, dyslysin, and according to the earlier 
authors stercorine, which seems now to be modified cholesterin. (See 
page 201.) 

THE URINE, 


or the urines , as the'French very properly call it, is the liquid sewerage 
of the body, consisting of its soluble nitrogenous refuse besides the 
excess of fluid present in the blood. 

About sixty ounces may be taken as the average quantity of urine 
secreted by an adult in twenty-four hours; but this is subject to great 
variation, depending on such causes as the quantity of fluid taken, the 
season of the year, and the relative activity of the skin, lungs and ali¬ 
mentary canal. 

Average composition of normal urine , and average quantity of the 
various constituents excreted in twenty-four hours (Kirkes ). 


Constituents per 1,000 parts. 

Water. 967.000 

Urea. 14.230 

Uric acid. 0.468 

Extractives, pigment, mucus. 10.167 

Salts.;... 8.135 

Silica. traces 


Average quantity excreted in twenty-four 
hours (adult male). 

52.0 ounces. 

512.4 grains. 

8.5 “ 

161.0 “ 

425.0 “ 
traces. 


The composition and character of the urine of different animals 
varies. Thus in the carnivora, the urine is usually clear and acid, con¬ 
taining much urea and but little acid. In the herbivora it is usually 
turbid, and alkaline, containing urea like the carnivora, together with a 


great excess of hippuric acid but no uric acid; it also contains an 
abundance of the earthy carbonates (hence its turbidity), and but very 
little of the earthy phosphates, these latter being proportionately 
abundant in the feces. 

Thus it would seem that in animals that drink freely, the nitrogen is 
excreted as urea, whilst in those that drink but little, it is excreted as 







URINE CONSTITUENTS. 


205 


uric acid. It must be noted, however, that these differences are differ¬ 
ences for the most part of diet simply. For, if a carnivorous animal (as 
a dog) be fed on purely vegetable diet, or a herbivorous animal (as a 
rabbit) on a purely animal diet a corresponding change in the urine 
results. 

(2.) The composition of the urine varies greatly in disease, thus the 
quantity of uric acid is increased in gout, etc.; albumen occurs in 
Bright’s disease, etc. , sugar in diabetes, etc. 

(3.) The composition varies hour by hour. The morning urine 
(urina sanguinis) consists chiefly of the products of tissue decomposition. 
The day and evening urine is greatly influenced by the quantity and the 
character of the food digested (urina cibi) and water drunk (urina potus). 

(a.) The kidneys secrete certain bodies from the blood in an 
unaltered state, e. g., many metals (such as, Sb, Bi, Cu, Cr, Au, Fe, Li, 
Pb, Hg, Ag, Sn, Zn,) free organic acids, alcohol (?), numerous salts, 
many of the alkaloids, such as morphia, strychnia, atropine, etc. 

( b ) In other cases, the products secreted are oxidized products, or 
are otherwise changed. Thus ammonia salts are converted into nitrates; 
sulphur, alkaline sulphides and sulphites, become sulphates; tannic 
becomes gallic acid. The neutral salts of organic acids become carbon¬ 
ates; free iodine is excreted as an alkaline iodide; ferrocyanides become 
ferricyanides; indigo blue becomes indigo white; benzoic, cinnamic, and 
other acids are found in the urine as hippuric acid, etc. 

Properties: ( a ) Physical.—A clear, yellow fluid, having a mean 
specific gravity in health of 1020. Its color, however, may vary even in 
health from a colorless liquid to a deep orange. Variations in specific 
gravity occur in health ranging from 1015 to 1025, depending on the 
season of the year, diet, exercise, etc. In disease the variation is much 
greater, being sometimes as low as 1005, as in albuminuria, or, as high 
as 1060, as in diabetes. Of its relative clearness, it is to be noted, that 
in health it often becomes turbid on cooling, due to the deposition of 
phosphates. The cause of its peculiar odor has not been well made out. 
The odoriferous principle, whatever it may be, undergoes speedy change. 

(£) Chemical.—Healthy urine is generally acid. The acidity of 
the 60 ounces, voided in the twenty-four hours may be taken as 
equivalent to about the acidity of 30 grains of oxalic acid. This acidity, 
which is less during digestion (and, indeed, after a meal the urine may 
even be alkaline) and most marked during fasting, is due to the acid 
phosphate of sodium, and according to some observers, to certain free 
acids, such as lactic acida. 

After a certain time, varying from a few days to two weeks, the urine 
becomes alkaline. This alkalinity is due to the urea becoming converted 
into carbonate of ammonia, crystals of triple phosphate, confervoid 


206 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


growths and vibriones occurring simultaneously in the urine. Indeed, 
this change may be so rapid that under certain morbid conditions, as in 
cases of retention, it takes place in the bladder itself, thus rendering the 
urine turbid and alkaline when voided. The urine may, however, under 
certain conditions, be alkaline when secreted. This occurs when neutral 
alkaline salts of the vegetable acids have been administered, the acid 
being destroyed in the process of respiration, whilst the alkali appears 
in the urine as a carbonate. 

CONSTITUENTS OF THE URINE. 

(1) Water. This varies according to season, exercise, drink, condi¬ 
tion of nervous system, etc. Thus it is increased in diabetes, and 
decreased in albuminuria, in febrile affections, by other channels, etc. 

(2) UREA. 

i II 0 H 

Formula: CII 4 N 2 0, or graphically ■< I m || | m 

l H—N— 0 —N—H 

Occurrence: Urea is the chief method for the excretion of the nitro¬ 
genous refuse of the body, constituting on an average nearly one-half of 
the solids of the urine, but varying somewhat with diet and exercise, 
especially the former. It is greatest when the diet is largely animal, and 
least with a vegetable one, and larger in amount in middle life than in 
either youth or old age. Urea has also been found in various patholog¬ 
ical transudates, as amniotic fluid, the aqueous humor, lymph and elude. 

Preparation from Urine: Evaporate the urine to a syrup, and mix 
the concentrated liquid with an equal bulk of nitric acid. In this way 
a quantity of nitrate of urea will be formed. Dissolve this compound 
in boiling water, and treat the solution with baric carbonate, when pure 
urea remains in solution. Or it may be artificially prepared from ammo¬ 
nium cyanate (NH 4 CON), or carbonate. Artificial urea is interesting as 
being the first organic compound manufactured outside of the body. 
Urea is a colorless, inodorous body, crystallizing in long, flattened prisms. 
It is soluble in spirit (1 in 5 at 50° F.), and very soluble in water (1 in 1 
at 60° F.), the solution being neutral and permanent. Its rapid decom¬ 
position in the urine is due to its change into ammonic carbonic (to 
which the ammoniacal odor of putrid urine is due), and depends on the 
mucus present in the urine. When heated it melts, and finally decom¬ 
poses, evolving ammonia and ammonic cyanate, and leaving a residue of 
cyanuric acid. It forms salts with acids, such as the nitrate of urea, an 
important compound, on ac'count of its difficult solubility in nitric acid. 
When boiled with solution of caustic alkalies (cold solutions being 
without action upon it), it is resolved into ammonia and alkaline car- 


UEIC ACID. 


207 


bonates, a similar result occurring when urea is fused with the alkaline 
hydrates, or heated with water in a sealed tube. It combines with 
metallic oxides, and is decomposed by nitrous acids or chlorites. 

( 3 ) Ur ic acid —Lithic Acid— CgN 4 II 4 0 3 . This is present in the urine in 
combination with soda and ammonia, and is probably derived from the dis¬ 
integrated elements of albuminous tissues. The salts of uric acid, being 
more soluble in warm than in cold water, are frequently deposited as the 
urine cools, a reaction occurring in certain deranged states where an ex-* 
cess of uric acid is present. The quantity of uric acid in human urine is 
increased by an animal and decreased by a vegetable diet. It is increased 
in certain morbid states of the system. It varies greatly in different 
animals. In the feline tribe uric acid is often entirely replaced by urea. 
In birds and serpents the urea is often entirely replaced by uric acid. 
This suggests the notion that although urea and uric acid may have dif¬ 
ferent origins and different offices, nevertheless that each may do the 
work of the other. 

Pure uric acid is a perfectly white, odorless and tasteless powder, but 
if crystallized out of urine, it carries some of its coloring matter with and 
is deposited in reddish brown crystals. These crystals are insoluble in 
alcohol, cold dilute acids, and practically so in water (1 in 14000 cold, or 
1800 boiling). Uric acid is readily soluble in potassic or sodic hydrate 
forming readily soluble urates with them, which with the corresponding 
ammonia salts are the forms in which it is usually met with in the 
urine. 

Physiology: Uric acid is by many chemists regarded as one of the 
intermediate steps in the oxidation of nitrogenous foods for its final ex¬ 
cretion as urea. Hence an increase of nitrogenous food with diminished 
oxidation increases uric acid. Vaughan sums up the evidence thus: 

“That deficient oxidation increases the amount of uric acid and cor¬ 
respondingly decreases that of urea is proven by every fact which we 
know concerning the variations of the amounts of these substances. 
Wine drinking increases the quantity of uric acid, because the alcohol is 
more readily acted upon by the oxygen of the oxyhemoglobin and the 
nitrogenous constituents of the food escape combustion. Again, con¬ 
stant drinking of wine leads to disease of the liver, and this organ plays 
an important part in splitting the albumen of our food into carbohy¬ 
drates, urea and uric acid. Again in diseases of the lungs, when but an 
insufficient supply of oxygen reaches the blood, the quantity of uric acid 
is increased and that of urea correspondingly decreased. In venous 
stasis, the same resivlt follows, because the blood is not oxidized sufficiently. 
In indigestion the processes of retrograde metamorphosis are retarded 
and the nitrogen leaves the body just so much farther removed from urea. 
Those living in poorly ventilated houses excrete an excess of uric acid and 


I 


208 THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 

oxalate of lime ; the same is true of those who take but little nhysical 
exercise.” 

(4) Hippuric acid —C 9 H 9 X0 3 —is another of the constituents of normal 
urine where it is found in small quantity, especially after eating plums or 
cranberries, and the administration of certain medicines, as benzoic acid, 
etc. It may be separated from uric acid, with which it is usually precip¬ 
itated, by the ready solubility of hippuric acid in alcohol acidulated 
with hydrochloric acid in which uric acid is not soluble. Hippuric acid 
is sparingly soluble in cold Avater and ether, and freely so in alcohol. 

(5) Cystine, 0 3 H 7 NS0 2 , is remarkable as being the only organic con¬ 
stituent of urine which contains sulphur. It is usually met with in 
calculi only, but occasionally is found as a sediment or dissol\ r ed in the 
urine. It is probably an intermediate step in the formation of sulphuric 
acid by the oxidation of the sulphur of the tissues. In some diseased con¬ 
ditions of the liver, crystals of cystine are found in it, and in its com¬ 
position resembles taurin (See page 201). In this connection ought also 
to be mentioned xanthin , xanthic oxide or uric oxide, (VEI^Oo first 
disco\'ered in 1817, by Dr. Marcet, in a urinary calculus, and later by 
Stromeyer, Leibig, etc. Chemically xanthin differs from uric acid only 
in the loss of two atoms of oxygen, and according to Sherer is a natural 
constituent of the urine, and although by four observers only found as 
a urinary deposit. Pure xanthin appears as brittle, chalky crusts with 
slight yellowish tinge, becoming Avaxy Avhen rubbed. Soluble in alka¬ 
lies, also moderately soluble in warm concentrated HC1, which solu¬ 
tion becomes turbid on cooling and dej)osits quadratic crystals. Soluble 
without efferA r escence in HN0 3 and yields on evaporation a bright yellow 
residue, which becomes violet-red Avitli KOH. Xanthin, hypoxanthin, 
guanin, tyrosin, leucin, creatin, creatinin, are all immediate steps in the 
oxidation of nitrogenous substances on their Avay to urea, uric acid, 
water and carbonic acid. 

(6) Oxalic acid and the oxalates are still other products in the oxida¬ 
tion of many organic substances, and hence are frequently found in the 
urine Avhen imperfect oxidation is taking place, as shown in the folloAving 
equation: 

C 5 H 4 lSr 4 03+3H 2 0+20=H 2 0 8 0 4 +2CH 4 X 2 0+C0 2 . 

(Uric acid.) (Oxalic acid.) (Urea.) 

Allantoin, alloxan, alloxantin, alloxanic acid and other compounds 
are oxidation products of uric acid (See putrefaction); and, like uric 
acid, yields oxalic acid Avith partial oxidation, whereas Avith perfect oxi¬ 
dation they Avould be converted into urea, carbon dioxide and water, as 
may be seen from the annexed equations, taken from Vaughan : 


EXCRETION OF NITROGEN. 


209 


C 4 H t N,0 4 +2n,0+0=*H i C i 0 4 +CH 4 N,0+C0,. 

(Alloxan.) (Oxalic acid.) (Urea.) 

0 4 H 6 N 4 0,+2H t 0+0-H I C i 0 4 +2CH 4 N i 0. 

(Allantoin.) (Oxalic acid.) (Urea.) 

2C 57 H 110 O 6 +O 316 =55H 2 C 2 O 4 +4OO 3 . 

(Stearine.) (Oxalic acid.) (Carbon dioxide.) 

C 6 H 0 5 +90=3H 2 C 2 0 4 +2H 2 0. 

(Glycogen.) (Oxalic acid.) (Water.) 

Complete Oxidation: 

0 B H 4 N- 4 0 # +2H,0+30—2CH 4 N.O+OO f . 

C 4 H a N a 0 4 +H a 0+20~CH 4 N a 0+3C0,. 

C 4 H 6 N 4 0 3 +20=2CH 4 N 2 0+2C0 2 +H 2 0. 

2C 57 H 110 0 6 +3260=114C0 o + 110H o 0. 
C 6 H 10 O 5 +12O=6CO a +5H 2 O. 

Hypoxanthin and guanine are sometimes considered in connection 
with uric acid and its derivatives, but as they are pathological products 
they belong more properly to putrefaction, where they will be discussed. 
The inorganic salts of the urine—sulphates, phosphates, etc.—have 
already been taken up in connection with the inorganic compounds of • 
the body, so that there now remain only a few of the 

SEROUS AND PATHOLOGICAL FLUIDS. 

« 

The latter belong more properly to pathology, but in conclusion it 
may be mentioned that pericardial fluid is yellowish, and contains 
about 5 per cent of solids. It is rich in fibrinogen and coagulates 
spontaneously if immediately removed from the body after death. If 
allowed to remain for some time it requires the addition of fibrino-plastin 
before this is accomplished. Cholesterin, uric acid, and urea are occa¬ 
sionally found in it. 

Hydrocele fluid has a specific gravity of 1010 to 1025. It seldom clots 
spontaneously, but will coagulate after the addition of fibrino-plastin. 
Sugar, urea, and uric acid have been found in it. 

Peritoneal fluid is normally very small in quantity, but pathologically 
it may be much increased, and varies greatly in appearance. Some¬ 
times it is almost as clear and colorless as water, and again it is milky 
from finely divided fat. It may contain urea, uric acid, xanthin, crea- 
tin, cholesterin, lecithin, fat and albuminous substances, and its specific 
gravity varies from 1015 to 1020. 

Pleural fluid may be either acid or alkaline in reaction, the former 
always being due to decomposition of pus ; but those specimens which 
contain pus have a smaller specific gravity than those that do not. 
Specific gravity ranges from 1005 to 1030. 

14 


210 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, strongly alkaline fluid of low specific 
gravity, 1002 to 1007, and consequently contains but a small amount of 
solids. The organic solids are cholesterin, urea, mucin, and a reducing 
substance not yet named ; the inorganic are the chlorides, sulphates and 
phosphates of sodium and potassium. 

The Aqueous humor of the eyes is a clear, feebly alkaline fluid which 
does not coagulate either spontaneously or when it is heated. 

Synovial fluid has a faint yellow tint, is alkaline in reaction, and 
contains mucin, albumen, extractives, fat and inorganic salts. 

The Amniotic fluid of the pregnant uterus is yellowish or brownish 
in color, and has a stale odor and a feebly alkaline reaction. It is gener¬ 
ally turbid and deposits a whitish sediment, which under the microscope 
is shown to consist of epithelial scales. It contains serum, albumen, 
fibrino-plastin, urea, creatinin, and occasionally sugar aud ammonium 
carbonate. 

Chyle from the thoracic duct is a milky, yellowish, or pinky white 
fluid, with a slightly saline taste and characteristic odor. Its reaction is 
feebly alkaline and its specific gravity varies from 1012 to 1022. Its 
formed elements are the same as those of lymph, with the addition of 
much suspended fat whose granules are larger in chyle than in lymph, 
and are surrounded with albuminous envelopes. Shortly after its 
removal from the body, chyle coagulates with a pinkish white clot, which 
like the blood coagulum contracts and squeezes out its serum, which is 
opalescent from suspended fat. 

Human milk is not unlike chyle in its composition, being a whitish 
fluid of sweetish taste and characteristic odor. Normal human milk 
always has an alkaline reaction, and its specific gravity varies from 1018 
to 1045. Its opacity is due to suspended milk globules, which rise upon 
the milk being allowed to stand for several hours and form a layer of 
cream upon its surface, while the underlying fluid is thin and of a 
bluish tint. (See page 196.) 

Spermatic fluid is of a grayish-white or yellowish-white tint, with a 
neutral or alkaline reaction and characteristic odor. Its formed elements 
are spermatozoa, corpuscles and epithelial cells; and its chemical con¬ 
stituents are a casein-like albumen, organic compounds containing 
phosphorus, and the same inorganic salts as are found in the blood. The 
fluid rapidly decomposes and throws down an abundant deposit of 
ammonio-magnesium phosphate crystals. 

PUS AND EXUDATES. 

An exudate is a fluid formed by arrest of the circulation of the blood 
from inflammation, and differs chemically from a transudate by the 
former containing albumen, blood globules, and having a greater specific 
gravity. 


CHEMISTRY OF EXUDATES. 


211 


Pus is the most important of these exudates, being formed like the 
blood of a serum and numerous white corpuscles apparently identical 
with those of the blood. Pus, if healthy, is a dense yellowish-white 
liquid of a neutral reaction; exposed to the air it becomes acid and 
evolves ammonium sulphide and forms fatty acids. 

Pus contains 15 to 16 per cent of soluble matter, the most important 
of which is albumen. The existence of a substance called pyin has been 
detected in it, but according to Lehman this body is an abnormal 
product. It generally contains a larger proportion of soluble salts than 
the serum of the blood. 

Boedecker found in a pus slightly alkaline: 


Water.88.76 

Albumen. 4.38 

Pvin. 4.65 

Fatty bodies and cliolesterin. 1.09 

Sodium chloride. 0.59 

Other alkaline salts...,. 0.32 

Earthy phosphates. 0.21 


100.00 

Certain varieties of pus have the property of imparting a blue tinge 
to linen. Fordos has discovered the principle which produces this color¬ 
ation: it is a crystalline substance which he has named pyocyanin. 

Pus swells, and assumes the appearance of gelatine on being mixed 
with ammonium hydrate. This reaction distinguishes it from mucus. 

Pure pus, placed in a vessel and allowed to remain for several hours, 
separates into two layers. The lower, curdy layer contains the globules 
and the solids; the upjier, opalescent layer constitutes the serum. 

Pus serum, as has already been said, closely resembles blood serum, 
and occasionally contains other substances, among which may be 
mentioned, paraglobulin, tyrosin, leucin, xanthin, urea, glucose (in 
diabetes), bilirubin, uric and chlorrhodinic acids (in necrosis), and a 
special pus product, hydropsin. 


II. THE PUTREFACTION OF THE BODY. 

Putrefaction, according to Webster, is the process of becoming 
putrid or rotten. Chemically this is accomplished by the decomposition 
of molecules, that is, by the breaking up of more complex compounds 
into simpler ones by the action of the atmosphere and heat. This 
always takes place in an organized body as soon as life is extinct, for 
putrefaction follows death whether it be local or general. Huxley well 
defines these two forms of death as follows : 











212 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


“ Local death is going on at every moment, and in most, if not in all, 
parts of the living body. Individual cells of the epidermis and of the 
epithelium are incessantly dying and being cast off, to be replaced by 
others which are, as constantly, coming into separate existence. The 
like is true of blood corpuscles, and probably of many other elements of 
the tissues. 

“ This form of local death is insensible to ourselves, and is essential to 
the dne maintenance of life. But, occasionally, local death occurs on a 
larger scale, as the result of injury, or as the consequence of disease. A 
burn, for example, may suddenly kill more or less of the skin; or part of 
the tissues of the skin may die, as in the case of the slough which lies in 
the midst of a boil; or a whole limb may die and exhibit the strange 
phenomena of mortification. 

“ The local death of some tissues is followed by their regeneration. 
Not only all the forms of epidermis and epithelium, but nerve, connect¬ 
ive tissue, bone, and, at any rate, some muscles, may be thus reproduced, 
even on a large scale. Cartilage once destroyed is not restored. 

“ General death is of two kinds, death of the body as a icliole, and death 
of the tissues. By the former term is implied the absolute cessation of 
the functions of the brain, of the circulatory, and of the respiratory 
organs; by the latter the entire disappearance of the vital actions of the 
ultimate structural constituents of the body. When death takes place, 
the body, as a whole, dies first, the death of the tissues sometimes not 
occurring until after a considerable interval. 

“ Hence it is that, for some little time after what is ordinarily called 
death, the muscles of an executed criminal may be made to contract by 
the application of proper stimuli. The muscles are not dead, though 
the man is.” 

Local death and its changes belongs to the physician and histologist, 
but the study of the changes following general death are the peculiar 
province of the embalmer. What, then, is putrefaction, and what are 
its causes ? 

Putrefaction is the name given to decomposition of organic matter 
attended with disagreeable odors, and is usually limited to that taking 
place in blood, flesh and other animal tissues, that is to say, in those 
substances whose rapid alteration begins with contact with the air but 
may finish without its participation. Organic decomposition is also 
called rotting, or slow combustion when substances such as wood or veg¬ 
etable fibers gradually disintegrate with the indispensable assistance of 
the air. According to the ideas generally accepted at the present time, 
the phenomena of putrefaction are of three kinds, viz.: physical, chem¬ 
ical and vital, or those due to liying organisms. 

Physical embrace extravasation, rigor mortis and post-mortem hypos- 



PUTREFACTIVE CHANGES. 


213 


tasis, taking place eight to twelve hours after death in the dependent parts 
of bodies ; hence to be looked for on the back of the head, neck, trunk, 
nails, back of arms, thighs, calves, if lying on back and vice versa. Im¬ 
bibition of fluid under this head. Here also belong the mechanical 
action of gases evolved in the intestines. 

Chemical changes are those which produce discoloration of body, viz.: 
a greenish, or yellowish purple discoloration of the skin of the abdomen 
and genitals and thence to other parts of the body, also other new chem¬ 
ical compounds such as gases produced about the body, distending the 
abdomen, hence purging and discoloration of the viscera often resembling 
poison, giving reddish brown, livid purple, green, or even black streaks. 

Vital changes are those produced by bacteria and other low forms of 
life in the body after death. All of these phenomena well deserve the 
careful study of the educated embalmer; and to this end we shall discuss 
them in detail, borrowing largely for this purpose from “ Tidy’s Forensic 
Medicine,” in which the subject is more exhaustively treated than any 
other book in the English language. Beginning with him at rigor mortis, 
or the first evidence of approaching decomposition in the body (See pages 
97, 98), we are met with these practical questions arising out of the 
phenomena of post-mortem rigidity, to each of which we give Tidy’s 
answers in full. 

1. How soon after death does it appear? 

2. In what order are the various parts of the body affected? 

3. How soon does it pass off? 

4. By what circumstances is it modified? 

Old nurses and “layers out” are always extremely anxious to 
close the eyelids with a penny piece, and bind up the lower jaw the mo¬ 
ment after death if they can/ lest rigidity should intervene before they 
have time thus to compose the corpse. Our own observations have 
taught us that rigidity of the eyelids sometimes comes on in less than 
five minutes after death. Dr. Guy says “Even before the heart has 
ceased to beat imsome cases,” and Brown-Sequard confirms this. Som¬ 
mer says he has known it to appear in ten minutes. From three to six 
hours is perhaps the average. Niderkorn, whose observations appear to 
have been made with great care, states that in more than two-tliirds of 
his 135 cases, post-mortem rigidity was complete in the third, fourth, 
fifth, or sixth hour; in only two out of 116 cases was it complete as 
early as two hours. But he states that in all the 135 cases, some one or 
more of the articulations were rigid within the first two hours after 
death. There seems no well-authenticated case in which the superven¬ 
tion of post-mortem rigidity has been delayed beyond the day of death, 
although there are numerous cases in which it passes off so quickly as to 
be unnoticed. 


214 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


Rigor mortis is generally believed to be due to the coagulation of the 
myosin in the muscle plasma (see page 97) in consequence of which 
the muscle becomes opaque, thicker, shorter, less elastic, and gives an 
acid reaction. After a longer or shorter time this rigor passes away 
never to return, and the coagulated albuminoid begins to decompose, 
its acid reaction changing to neutral or alkaline. 

The order of its occurrence is nearly invariable. “Its stiffness 
always begins in the human subject with the trunk and neck, then 
attacks the thoracic limbs; and from them proceeds to the abdominal 
ones, so that the latter are still supple when the former are already stiff; 
and it follows the same order in disappearing, so that the legs are often quite 
stiff when the other parts of the body have regained their suppleness. ” 
Sommer (De signis mortem hominis absolutem ante putredinis accesum 
indicantibus, Copenhagen, 1833, a rare book, quoted by Orfila) says: 
“It begins in the neck and lower jaw, then attacks the upper extremities, 
lastly the pelvic limbs. It is rare for it to begin in the lower extremi¬ 
ties, or to invade all four limbs at once. In two hundred cases Sommer 
found only one in which it did not begin in the neck.” Larcher (in a 
memoir addressed to the Academy of Sciences, in the “Archives de 
Medicine,” 1862) founded on the examination of six hundred bodies, 
states that “the order of post-mortem rigidity is always the same, no 
matter what the kind of death, whether sudden or slow, natural or 
accidental. The muscles of the lower jaw stiffen first, then the abdomi¬ 
nal limbs, then the neck and muscles; lastly, more or less slowly, the 
thoracic limbs and arms. The muscles which are the first to stiffen, 
remain stiff the longest. It is also certain that the lower jaw and the 
knee stiffen more slowly and thoroughly than the shoulder.” 

Casper states that “it passes from above downwards, begins on the 
back of the neck and lower jaw, passes then into the facial muscles, the 
front of the neck, the chest the upper extremities, and last of all, the 
lower extremities. Usually it passes off in the same order, and once 
gone it never returns, and the body becomes as flexible as it formerly 
was. ” 

Niderkorn says “ the hip and knee go together, and the shoulder and 
elbow; in about half the cases the foot and wrist go with their larger 
joints. The lower jaw is usually first attacked, then the neck, then the 
lower extremities, but very often upper and lower extremities stiffen 
almost simultaneously. ” 

In answer to the question, how soon does it pass off'? it must be said 
that there are cases in which it passes off with extreme rapidity, even as 
soon as in one or two hours. In winter six or seven days are not 
uncommon. As long as three weeks have been noted in verv cold 
weather. 


RIGOR MORTIS. 


215 


The circumstances which modify rigor mortis are: (a) The age of the 
subject, and the condition of the muscular system. Excluding fetuses 
of immature growth, young subjects, etc., very old ones display the 
most complete rigidity, (b.) The mode of death. In very lingering 
diseases (such as phthisis) it often comes on very speedily, and dis¬ 
appears in an hour or two. In conditions of great exhaustion from 
fatigue (as at the end of a battle, or in hunted animals) the same thing 
occurs. In cholera it comes on early and lasts late. In most cases of 
violent death, and of poisoning, it sets in late and lasts long. Casper 
states that it is absent in narcotic poisoning. This is not, however, 
generally true. Habitual drunkards exhibit a long continuance of post¬ 
mortem rigidity. There can be no doubt that a low temperature of the 
surrounding air is favorable to the long persistence of this rigidity. On 
the other hand, Brown-Sequard and others have shown that it may come 
on in a warm bath, that it is exceedingly ivell marked in hot countries, 
and that it often comes on when the internal temperature of the corpse 
is above the normal. Paralyzed limbs become rigid, but the muscles of 
limbs shattered by accident do not stiffen like others. Post-mortem 
rigidity has been stated (on the high authority of John Hunter) not to 
occur in death by lightning. Mr. Gulliver and more lately Mr. B. Ward 
Richardson have shown this to be erroneous, both by cases and experi¬ 
ments. The latter points out that animals dying with an increase of their 
normal or natural temperature speedily become very strongly rigid, and 
remain stiff a long time. This often happens in small-pox, acute 
rheumatism, tetanus, meningitis, abdominal diseases, pyaemia, and the 
like. Lastly, coid water is favorable to the long continuance of post¬ 
mortem rigidity. (See page 08.) 

When a joint or articulation stiff from rigor mortis, or post-mortem 
rigidity, is forcibly bent, the stiffness passes off, and does not return. 
This may distinguish death from certain cases of supposed trance, from 
cataleptic states, and from tetanic cases of rigidity or the effect of 
poisons. The progressive loss of heat in post-mortem rigidity, and the 
application of other tests for the reality of death will also save the care¬ 
ful medical man from mistaking stiffness in the living body for the 
rigidity which conies on after death. 

JV. B. Previous to the occurrence of post-mortem rigidity, the volun¬ 
tary muscles have lost their irritability. In other words, chemical, 
mechanical, and other irritants, such as interrupted and induced currents 
of electricity, no longer excite contractions of the muscles. Whilst 
referring to treatises on physiology for details of the effects of various 
irritants on muscular fibers, the following facts appear to us of especial 
importance: 

(1) Whilst healthy muscles are easily excited to contraction by 


216 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


interrupted currents of moderate force (such as those from one of the 
ordinary “medical” machines in which the “keeper” is made to rotate 
between the poles of a magnet), yet this contractility even in life, may 
be in abeyance, or suspended, by the following agencies: (a) The effect 
of certain poisons, as in chronic lead-poisoning, strychnine and its con¬ 
geners, nitrite of amyl, etc. (b) By previous exhaustion, from long- 
continued mechanical, electrical, and other stimuli. Hence it is undesir¬ 
able in cases of suspended animation, to use galvanism or any form of 
electricity for prolonged periods of time. Even great fatigue, or repeated 
blows as in prize fights, or prolonged struggles, will have the same effect. 
(c) Long continued cold suspends, without destroying the irritability 
of voluntary muscles. According to Dr. B. Ward Richardson (Croonian 
Lectures, 1873) from 38 deg. to 28 deg. F. is the most favorable 
degree of cold for mere suspension, (cl) Increased heat, especially 
about 12 deg. Fahrneheit (6.6 deg. Centigrade), above the normal 
temperature of an animal, if long-continued it tends to bring about a 
permanent loss of irritability, or rigor mortis in the muscles from coagu¬ 
lation of the myosin (Norris, Richardson, etc.) (e) A sudden sharp 
blow has been known to produce the same effect, (f) According to 
Nysten, the order in which muscular irritability ceases is the following: 
First in the left ventricle of the heart, then in the intestines and stomach, 
the urinary bladder, right ventricle of heart, oesophagus, iris, then in 
the voluntary muscles of the trunk, lower and upper extremities, lastly 
in the left and right auricle of the heart. (^) Certain diseases of the 
brain and spinal cord (Paralysis, especially Paraplegia, Pseudo-hyper¬ 
trophic Paralysis of Duchenne, etc.) show suspension or entire loss of 
this irritability, (h) During a contraction of a muscle heat is produced, 
hence as a test it has been proposed to insert a delicate thermometer 
(registering at least tenths of a degree Centigrade) into the muscle to be 
tested, whilst an electric current is passed through it, or still better, 
through its nerves, (i) Sound is also produced when muscles contract 
forcibly. This susurrus might therefore be listened for with the 
stethoscope, whilst making the experiment to produce contraction. (To 
imitate this, listen over biceps whilst contracting, or insert tip of little 
finger into ear, and contract muscles of ball of thumbs quickly, Dr. 
AValloston.) (j) After death, notably in yellow fever, cholera, and 
some other diseases, muscular movements, and muscular irritability in a 
marked degree, may persist for several hours after death, in other words, 
after respiration and circulation have ceased. (See Dr. Bennett Dowler's 
• “ Experimental Researches on Post-mortem Contractility,” New York. 
1846.) (k) It is a disputed point whether the blood has any appreci¬ 

able influence upon muscular irritability after death. It is, however, 
known that ligature of a large artery in animals suspends or greatly 


PHENOMENA OF PUTREFACTION. 


217 


diminishes this irritability, as do large losses of blood, whilst artificial 
circulation, especially of warm fluids, restores it. ( l ) Lastly, certain 
curious so-called psychical states, such as trance, hysteria, shock, etc., 
suspend or greatly impair muscular contractility. 

Tidy well remarks that even putrefaction per se is not conclusive proof 
of general death, for the reason that it may only prove local death as in 
the case of gangrene of the limbs, face, or trunk, etc., after severe local 
injuries, or in certain feeble states of health. (2) The spontaneous 
changes of color undergone by extravasated blood, or what is popularly 
known as a “ bruise,” simulate the coloration due to putrefaction. It is 
pretty obvious, too, that such an appearance might be artificially pro¬ 
duced by pigments. (3) The odor of decomposition, so far from being 
exclusively a post-mortem phenomenon, is met with in certain diseases, 
as gangrene of the lungs, etc., ulcers of the lower extremities, caries of 
bones (ozena), and the like. It must, however, be admitted that gen¬ 
eral and advanced decomposition of the tissues is one of the safest signs 
of death. The phenomena presented by dead bodies undergoing putre¬ 
faction may be classed as follows. 

Phenomena of Putrefaction. 

{a) Appearances due to extravasation and imbibition of fluids. 
f ( h) Those due to putrefaction itself, and the evolution of gases, 
s (c) Those due to saponification, or the formation of the adipocere. 
I (d) Those due to mummification, or slow drying of the tissues. 

A. Appearances due to extravasation of and imbibition of fluids. 
(, a ) Post-mortem stains or hypostases. Very soon after death (eight to 
twelve hours, Casper) the dependent or lowest parts of the body (no 
matter what the position) acquire an appearance which closely simulates 
the effects of bruises or contusions. The blood (See page 186) within the 
body after death coagulates just as blood withdrawn from the living- 
body does, though more slowly. In acute inflammations, where the 
amount of fibrin is much increased, this coagulation sometimes precedes 
the actual moment of death, and is in fact one of the modes of death. 
In diseases such as those fevers which diminish the quantity of fibrin or 
reduce it to almost nothing, as e.g., phthisis, the blood may scarcely 
coagulate at all. Sir James Paget has drawn attention to the subject of 
“ Coagulation of the Blood after Death,” in a paper with this title in the 
London Medical Gazette, vol. xxvii., page 613 etc. He shows that the 
position of the red blood corpuscles, in other words, of the most deeply- 
colored portion of the clot, may often determine the position of the 
body after death. It is generally said that the seat of the discolorations 
after death (cadaveric lividity) differs from that of the discoloration 
produced when the man was alive; the rete muscoum and vascular mem- 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


brane exterior to (above) the true skin, being the parts affected by post¬ 
mortem changes, the true skin being found injected and ecchymosed in 
bruises inflicted during life, and from the effects of poisons and struggles. 
Dr. Guy has shown that this is by no means always true (“Manual," 
page 238). No blood flows from an incision into post-mortem stains, or 
at most only a few bloody points can be made out in most cases. In 
cases of dropsy, however, a blood-stained serum might exude. These 
post-mortem stains or hypostasis are divided into internal and external. 
The latter are to be looked for at the back of the head, neck and trunk, 
the nates, back of arms and thighs, calves, etc., in ordinary cases; but 
they may also be found on the face, ears and sides, and as before stated, 
on the lowest or most dependent parts of the body, whatever its position 
may have been. If the body be turned over whilst still warm, the 
original stains more or less disappear, and fresh ones may form. The 
color varies from livid or coppery-red to reddish-blue, and the outlines 
are very irregular, as is the size of the spots or stains. Some medical 
jurists call these post-mortem stains suggillation, an ambiguous term. 
Those resembling stripes are called vibices. It is important for you to 
know that such marks closely simulating the effects of flogging may be 
produced by the pressure of clothes, ’or of the surface on which the body 
is lying. Occasionally post-mortem ecchymoses, particularly in death 
bv lightning, assume an arborescent or tree-like form, which appears to 
be due to the distension of cutaneous capillaries and small veins. The 
larger marks do not always correspond to the cutaneous veins, etc., 
described in books, but it must be remembered that great irregularities 
are met with in the cutaneous veins. 

Internal hypostases, or blood-stains, occur chiefly in the following 
situations: (1) In the veins of the pia mater of the posterior hemis¬ 
phere, in the ordinary position of the head after death. (2) In the 
posterior part of the lungs. This appears to be true of all bodies, es¬ 
pecially in cases of old or feeble persons. About one-fourth of the lungs 
is thus marked. (3) On the intestines. This may be mistaken by the 
incautious for peritonitis. To guard yourselves from this, pull the con¬ 
volutions of the bowels forward, and you will see “breaks” in the red¬ 
ness. On the posterior or dependent portions of the interior of the 
stomach, and small intestines a similar discoloration may be met with, 
due simply to small hypostatic injections. (4) In the posterior parts 
of the kidneys. (5) In the spinal cord, 'posteriorly, particularly in 
its pia mater. You should familiarize yourselves with the appearances 
presented in the post-mortem room, both on the exterior and interior of 
the body. They will be your best safeguard against those ridiculous 
mistakes which are constantly made by persons ignorant of these matters. 
Were they only ridiculous, but little harm would be done; but, unfor- 


GASES FROM PUTREFACTION. 


219 


tunately, there is a serious side, and innocent persons may be condemned 
by mistakes originating in ignorance. 

It is cpiite clear that besides coagulation of the blood, tliere is also a 
solution of its coloring matter in many cases, probably due to ammo- 
niacal gas; and that the subsequent changes of color are due to varying 
degrees of oxidation, and to the separation of iron from the coloring 
matter. Similar changes occur in old apoplectic clots. 

Bile-stains. Soon after death, changes take place in bile, so that its 
coloring matter oozes through the gall-bladder, and other parts which 
contain it. In this way the contiguous parts of the stomach and intes¬ 
tines may be stained of a yellowish or greenish color. Do not mistake 
this for the effect of corrosive poisons. 

Changes produced by Putrefaction and the Evolution of gases. 
These become evident to sight, smell, and chemical tests. One of the 
earliest signs of putrefaction is a greenish or greenish-purple, or yellow¬ 
ish-green discoloration of the skin of the abdomen. This next extends 
itself to the genitals, and then to other parts of the body. The discol¬ 
oration of the eye has already been noticed (Pages 93-94). Next, 
gases of various kinds are generated in more of less abundance, giving 
the body a bloated appearance, and especially distending the abdomen. 
In some cases the gas is highly inflammable. The chief gases which 
have been recognized by chemists as evolved from decomposing bodies 
are: 

1. CARBONIC ACID GAS. 

Synonyms: Carbonic Anhydride , Carbonic Oxide, Mephitic Air, 

Choke Damp, etc. Formula : C0 2 . 

Origin: It is one of the final products of the retrograde metamor¬ 
phosis of all organized bodies, and is formed constantly during life and 
similarly after death from the tissues. 

Properties: A colorless, poisonous gas, whose properties are described 
on page 138. 

Tests: Known by reactions with lime or baryta-water and reddening 
litmus paper transiently. Carbonic acid gas is the compound into which 
the carbon of organic compounds is transformed in quantitative analysis. 

2. CARBON MONOXIDE. 

Formula, CO. Molecular weight, 28. Specific gravity, 0.9678. One 
hundred cubic inches weigh, 80.21 grains. 

Properties: Carbon monoxide is a colorless, inodorous, tasteless and 
very poisonous gas, which burns readily with a blue flame, producing 
carbonic anhydride. It is easily produced from carbon by various 
processes, and always occurs when charcoal is burned in a furnace in 
which the supply of oxygen from the air is not sufficient for the amount 


220 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


of charcoal under combustion. This gas is poisonous. (See Poisons.) 
When present in considerable quantities it is exceedingly fatal to life, 
one per cent of this gas in the air being sufficient to kill small mammals. 
The combination of this gas with the globules of the blood renders them 
incapable of carrying oxygen, and this causes death. The chemical 
union thus made is quite stable, and recovery from the effects of inhaling 
carbon monoxide, slow and difficult. 

Carbonous oxide unites readily with oxygen to form carbonic 
anhydride, as above ..stated. It also combines with chlorine to form 
carbonyl-chloride or (CO) Cl 2 . It has been liquified by Cailletet; is but 
slightly soluble in water, and has no effect upon litmus paper. 

Test: Burns with a pale blue flame, unlike the other oxide of carbon 
(C0 2 ), which is not combustible. 

3. AMMONIA GAS. 

Synonym: Hydrogen nitride. Formula, NH % . Molecular weight, 17. 

Specific gravity, 0.589. 

Origin: Ammonia gas is artificially prepared by mixing together 
powdered sal-ammoniac and slaked lime and applying a gentle 
heat. It is found chemically combined with acids in the urine 
of men and the lower animals. It is produced when nitrogenous 
substances are exposed to the air or are oxidized by air or water. It is 
one of the constant products of decomposition of the nitrogenous prin¬ 
ciples of the animal or vegetable kingdoms, and ordinarily accompanies 
carbonic acid, acetic acid, etc., which are given off at the same time. 

Properties: It is a colorless, sharp, caustic gas, with a strong, pun¬ 
gent odor, irritating to the eyes and air passages and causing a flow of 
tears; it extinguishes lighted candles, but can be made to burn in an 
atmosphere of oxygen. It is extremely soluble in water, one volume of 
water dissolving 700 volumes of this gas, and forming the well-known 
aqua ammoniac. 

Chemism: Ammonia possesses in an eminent degree the qualities 
called alkaline. It turns litmus paper blue and turmeric brown, and 
combines readily with acids, neutralizing them completely. Under 
a pressure of six atmospheres at 10° it condenses to a colorless liquid. 
Being still further subjected to cold, the liquid freezes to a solid, trans¬ 
parent, crystalline mass. Ammonia was once considered by many chem¬ 
ists the vehicle of miasm and putrefaction, by even as good a one as 
Vauquelin, who, from his analyses of tobacco, came to the conclusion 
that many bodies were rendered odorous by their combination with am¬ 
monia, or as Parent Du Chalet in 1835 expressed it, “ ammonia gives 
wings to fetid matter.” 

Tests: Its pungent odor, alkaline reaction (blue) with red litmus 


GASES OF PUTREFACTION. 


221 


paper and white fumes with hydrochloric acid. Ammonia gas is the 
usual method adopted for setting free and estimating the nitrogen in 
organic matter, for when this is heated with caustic soda or potash the 
whole of its nitrogen is given up in the form of ammonia gas. 

4. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE. 

Synonyms: Sulphuretted hydrogen, hydro-sulphuric and sulphur- 
hydric acid, hepatic gas (Halle). 

History: The precise nature of the gas, described by Halle under the 
name of hepatic gas, and by him supposed to be the sole cause of the 
asphyxia and disgusting odors produced by a dead body, was not under¬ 
stood until this gas was isolated by Thenard, and studied by him, 
Hupeytren, Barreul and others. 

Properties: Are given on page 139. 

Origin: Produced by the decomposition of the albuminoids, bile, and 
other substances which contain the sulphur of the body. 

Tests: Its fetid odor resembling rotten eggs, and its power of turn- 
ning paper soaked in a solution of acetate lead black when placed 
near it. If sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia gas are combined, a 
paper moistened with nitro-prusside of sodium, when exposed to the 
mixed gases, acquires a crimson tint. 

5. CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. 

\ 

Synonyms: Marsh gas, methane, mythlic hydride, sub-carburetted 
hydrogen, heavy inflammable air, fire-damp, pit gas. 

For properties of this colorless, odorless gas, see page 139. 

Tests: Burns like ordinary illuminating gas, producing water and 
CO by its combustion. 

6. NITROGEN, 

or azote, as it was formerly called, is described on page 111. Guyton 
DeMorveau thought that condensed azote was the principal part of all 
contagious virus, but fuller study has proven it the most inert and nega¬ 
tive of all the gases. 

Tests: Depend upon its failures to respond to the reactions for the 
other gases, for this is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and non-inflammable. 

7. PHOSPIIORETTED HYDROGEN. 

Synonyms: Gaseous hydrogen phosphide, phosphonia, phosphonine, 
phosphorous trihydride, phosphine. Formula, PH 3 . Molecular weight, 
SJf.. Specific gravity, 1.19. 

Phosphoretted hydrogen is formed during the decomposition of 
organic substances containing phosphorus. The natural phenomenon 
of the “ Will o' the Wisp ” is an example of the formation of this gas. 


222 


THE CHEMISTRY OE THE HUMAN BODY. 


Properties: A colorless gas, with a strong, garlic-like odor, slightly 
soluble in water, and burning with a brilliant white flame, forming phos¬ 
phoric acid and water. 

The pure gas fires on being raised to a temperature of about 70°, and 
as ordinarily prepared (from heating phosphorous with potassium hy¬ 
drate) the gas is spontaneously inflammable, and as. the bubbles enter 
the air they take fire, forming white rings of P 2 0 5 , thus producing the 
phosphorescence sometimes seen about a corpse. 

Phosphine is slightly acid in its action upon blue litmus-paper. In 
passing through metallic solutions it is decomposed, and metallic phos¬ 
phides are precipitated. When mixed with oxygen it explodes. 

OXYGEN (page 111) and HYDROGEN (page 110) have been fully 
described previously and need no further mention here. These gases 
may be generated, either from the tissues, or from the food and feces in 
the stomach and intestines, and may tinge both the exterior and 
interior of the viscera in a remarkable manner, often resembling the 
effects of poison, Reddish-brown, deep-livid purples, slate color, and 
green or greenish-yellow, or even black streaks or lines, may be found. 
The color of the blood in the veins or heart may also be greatly changed 
by these spontaneous decompositions. 

The force of the gas generated has been sufficient, in some cases, to 
empt}^ the heart and great vessels—even, it is said, to expel the fetus 
from the uterus and to burst the coffins, even when made of lead, in 
which such bodies have been inclosed. There is a popular idea preva¬ 
lent, that it is common for bodies to burst; but this is the reverse of 
truth. 

The evolution of gases within the body forces up the diaphragm by 
the distension of the bowels, and the same pressure crowds the blood 
toward the head and neck; the face swells, and the eyes, which prev¬ 
iously had been sunken, now protrude and may even rupture. Mucus, 
bloody froth and the contents of the stomach and lungs are forced out, 
and at times the contents of the bowels are similarly discharged. Blood 
and sanguineous fluids issue from wounds or ruptured vessels, and all the 
loose tissues, as the eyelids, scrotum, penis and labia, are distended by 
gas produced by the decomposition of the tissues. Bullae, or vesications, 
form, and the hair, nails, and scarf-skin easily become detached. The 
breath and portions of the body have been luminous in the dark in some 
cases, generally in advanced stages of consumntion, or wasting disease. 
(See Phosphoretted hydrogen.) 

Although the occurrence of putrefaction is very variable as to time, 
the general order for the time and succession of its various steps can 
scarcely be better given than in Dr. Letheby's words: 

“ In about eight or ten hours after death, the surface of the body, 


ORDER OF PUTREFACTION. 


223 


especially over the chest and on the inside of the arms and thighs, puts 
on a marbled appearance, due to a turgescence of the superficial veins. 
In about sixteen hours the dependent parts become livid or reddish- 
purple, and after the lapse of twenty-four hours, this lividity is generally 
very marked, and the marbling on the chest and arms begins to acquire 
a purplish tint. About the second day it assumes a brownish hue, and by 
this time the abdomen and groins show more evident marks of the putre¬ 
factive process by acquiring a green color. From this period it advances 
with more or less rapidity, according to attendant circumstances. In 
five or six days the entire surface is ordinarily very green, and the venous 
marbling more strongly marked. About this time, in warm weather, the 
epidermis begins to loosen, and the fluids acquire great liquidity, and 
gravitate to the dependent parts, through which they readily escape. 
Beyond this, the track of decomposition can scarcely be followed with 
any certainty. v 

“In what order does putrefaction advance in internal organs?” In 
other words. What parts of the body putrefy first, and which resist long¬ 
est ? As an aid to the memory, it may be said that the windpipe and 
brain are first attacked, and the heart , lungs and uterus last. Casper 
gives the following order: 

1. Larynx and trachea (3 to 5 days). 

2. Brain of infants and small children. 

3. Stomach (4 to G days). 

4. Intestines. 

5. Spleen (often earlier). 

G. Liver—gall bladder, later. 

7. Brain of adults. 

8. Lungs and heart. 

9. Kidneys. 

10. Urinary bladder. 

11. Oesophagus. 

12. Pancreas. 

13. Diaphragm. 

14. Large vessels. 

15. Uterus—as late as nine months (Casper). 

This is the usual order of putrefaction; but, as has been mentioned 
elsewhere (Natural Mummies, pp. 30-32), the natural course of putre¬ 
faction may be arrested by cold or other causes. One of these causes 
is the change of the body into 


ADJPOCERE. 

Under certain circumstances, particularly in bodies long immersed in 
water; in very fat bodies, particularly of young persons, and in bodies 


224 


THE CHEMISTII Y OE THE HUMAN BODY. 


buried one on top of another, at a considerable depth, in a moist soil, a 
curious soapy, unctuous substance, named adipocere, from adeps, lard, 
and cera, wax, is formed principally out of the fatty tissues. Although 
it is said to have been known to the ancients, and mentioned by Lord 
Bacon, this substance attracted little attention till the publication of 
Fourcroy’s Memoir, read in 1789 to the Loyal Academy of Sciences of 
Paris. He found in the removal of many bodies from the Cemetiere 
des Innocens, in Paris, that the bodies presented three different states : 
1. The most ancient were simply portions of bones irregularly dispersed 
in the soil, which had been frequently disturbed. 2. A second state 
exhibited the skin, muscles, tendons and aponeuroses, in bodies which 
had been insulated, dry, brittle, hard, more or less gray, and like what 
are called natural “mummies” (See p. 31). 3. The most singular state 

was observed in the common graves, where large numbers had been 
interred in deep pits, one above the other. On opening one of these, 
which had been quite closed for fifteen years, he found the coffins fairly 
preserved ; the lining which had covered them was slightly adherent to 
the flattened bodies, and with the form of the different regions exhibited. 
On opening was found nothing but irregular masses of a soft ductile 
matter, of a gray-white color, resembling common white cheese. “ It 
was sometimes found nearly white, at others yellowish-brown ; some¬ 
times brittle and dry, always more or less unctuous or soapy/’ Since 
the publication of this memoir, many researches have been made into 
the formation of this singular substance, which is by no means invariably 
of the same composition. Thus, some samples melt at less than 200° 
Fahrenheit; some, examined by Dr. Taylor, required a higher tempera¬ 
ture. Most specimens appear to be an ammoniacal soap, and are soluble 
in hot alcohol, making a lather with water, whilst others contain lime as 
a base. Whether lime or ammonia, the base is combined with oleic, 
stearic, and perhaps palmitic acid. As all the tissues contain more or 
less fat, almost every part of the body may be gradually converted into 
adipocere—even the bones to a great extent—but the skin, breasts, and 
fat of various organs are first so converted; more slowly muscles, solid 
viscera, and the harder tissues. 

It appears certain that under certain favorable circumstances, as in 
running water, a body can be partially converted into adipocere in from 
four to five or six weeks. (See Devergie, loc. cit.; also Dr. Giles “ Ex¬ 
periments on Meat.”) Dr. Taylor states that a female interred in a 
common grave, after fourteen months was partially converted into this 
substance, chiefly the lower part of her body. The period required by 
this change is therefore much less than was stated by the grave-diggers 
to Fourcroy. This has already been the subject of inquiry at a trial. 
An insolvent gentleman, named Meecham, left his house November 3, 


SIGNS OF DEATH. 


225 


as was supposed from his words and manner, to destroy himself. Five 
weeks and four days after (December 12) his body was found floating 
down a river, three miles from his home. Besides appearances of putre¬ 
faction in the face and scalp, the lower part of the abdomen and the 
gluteal muscles were found converted into adipocere. A commission of 
bankruptcy was taken out against him in a few days after he left home. 
The medico-legal question was, “ Is it probable he drowned himself on 
the day he left home?” In which case the bankruptcy would be an¬ 
nulled. Dr. Gibbes, of Bath, gave evidence that adipocere required at 
least a month, perhaps five or six weeks, to be found in any quantity, 
even in running water. The jury decided on this, that he had drowned 
himself when the commission was taken out. 

ORDER IN WHICH THE SIGNS OF DEATH SUCCEED EACH OTHER. 

The rapidity of decomposition in some cases, and the length of time 
during which it is retarded in others, renders it very unsafe to give any 
general rule which shall settle the time a body has been dead. An 
opinion must be founded upon the condition of all the organs, the mode 
of death, and the surroundings—including in the latter term the season 
of the year, the amount of heat and moisture, and the quantity of cloth¬ 
ing, depth of grave, etc. But Casper's rules will be found correct in 
the majority of cases. With slight alteration these are as follows: 

(T.) Signs of death present in bodies dead from ten to tivelve hours at 
longest. 

1. Complete cessation of respiration and circulation—no evidence of 
either, even by auscultation. 

2. The eye has lost its luster, the pupil is immovable, and the globe 
has lost its normal tension. 

3. No stimulus has any power of producing reaction. 

(In previously healthy subjects who have met with a violent or sudden 
death, galvanism—interrupted currents and shocks from any electric 
machine—may, however, produce movements, as in Galvani's well-known 
experiments for some hours after death.) 

4. The body is ashy white. (Except in jaundice, or yellow colora¬ 
tions from poisons, and in persons with very florid complexions. Tattoo- 
marks, the edges of ulcers, bruises, and wounds inflicted during life, 
and extravasations, as in purpura, must be excepted also.) 

5. Most bodies are quite cold from eight to twelve hours (See pages 

95,97). 

6. There is a state of general relaxation and flaccidity (unless rigor 
mortis be present, and sometimes even then), with flattening of the 
nates, calves, etc., when subjected to the pressure of their own weights, 
and this is strikingly shown in the globe of the eye. 

15 


226 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


7. Dependent or posterior portions of the body begin to exhibit a 
brnised-like condition, known as post-mortem staining, or hypostastis— 
internal and external. 

II. Signs of death present in bodies from two to three days. In 
addition to all, or nearly all the preceding, especially the post-mortem 
stains we get 

8. Coagulation of the blood (See hereafter), and 

9. Rigor mortis is either present, or has passed off. (See pages 91-98.) 

As regards frozen bodies, the rigidity due to frost is known by its 

affecting all jiarts of the body and completely fixing the articulations. 

III. Signs of death in bodies dead more than three days. 

10. Except in very rare cases, there will now be signs of putrefaction. 
The exceptions will be in very cold weather, or bodies preserved in ice, 
or some modes of death (as alcohol poisoning), or when some method of 
hindering decomposition, has been employed; or at later periods, when 
mummification or saponification (formation of adipocere), of which we 
have just spoken, has modified this process. 

11. The temperature will now be that of the surrounding medium, 
or but little above it. 

12. And the muscles will no longer respond to the strongest galvanic 
current or electric shock. 

CAUTIONS AS TO PUTREFACTION. 

It is generally admitted that the earlier stages of this process are the 
most dangerous as regards infection from what are commonly called 
“post-mortem or dissection wounds.” Some of the later stages may, 
however, be equally dangerous, or even more so, unless precautions are 
taken to insure the dilution of the poisonous gases with a large bulk of 
air, and disinfection by chemical means. The matters, are, however, 
not so much within the province of our studies as are the following: 

1. Casper states, very properly, that bodies green from putridity, 
blown up with gases and excoriated, at the expiration of one month, or 
from three to five months after death (this stage of putrefaction lasting 
a long time in some cases), coet. par. cannot with any certaint}^ be dis¬ 
tinguished from each other, as regards either recognizing the features, 
or stating which died first, or how long death has taken place. 

2. We should hardly ever refuse to perform a post-mortem examin¬ 
ation merely on account of putridity, since in the most rotten corpses we 
can generally determine the sex and age (from the bones or hair, or dis¬ 
covery of a uterus), and very often the mode of death, as for example, 
in apoplexy, aneurism, and many forms of poisoning, notably arsenical, 
strychnine, and sometimes the existence of pregnancy, from finding 
fetal bones, etc., in the interior of a woman’s body, or some article, as a 
false tooth, or ring, or truss, or the loss of a limb, or an united or other 


CAUSES OF PUTREFACTION. 


*)-)7 

W i 

fracture wliich may lead to identification, as an united fracture did in 
the case of Dr. Livingstone. 


B.—THE CAUSES WHICH HASTEN OR RETARD 

PUTREFACTION. 

“ Dust to dust " is nature's fiat, and she accomplishes her will by 
means of five agents, or what might appropriately be called natural 
disinfectants. These are : 

1. Water or moisture. 

2. Oxvgen or air. 

3. Soil or earth. 

4. Heat or fire. 

5. Bacteria. 

For, by the aid of these, in due time after death a body will return to 
its primitive elements, with the exception of its hair, teeth and bones, 
which may under favorable circumstances be preserved almost indef¬ 
initely. There is said to be in the British museum a wig, found at 
Thebes, that cannot be less" than 3400 years old. Shakespeare, says a 
“ tanner will last you nine years,” and his statement is within the truth 
for there are preserved in the College of Surgeons, London, portions 
of dried human integument, taken from beneath the heads of nails 
driven into the doors of Worcester Cathedral, more than 1000 years old. 
The microscope proves that this skin belonged to a fair haired person, 
probably a Dane, for history tells us that they were in the habit of 
crossing over to England to pillage cathedrals, and when caught in the 
act were flayed alive and their skins nailed to the doors of the church 
they had attacked. These, however, are exceptional cases for with the 
loss of vitality, the presence of moisture and oxygen, and a temperature 
above 32° F. and below 182°—more exactly between 40° and 200° F.— 
the integument and other tissues rapidly decompose. Consequently the 
onset and rapidity of putrefaction depend upon the presence or absence 
of these factors. If they are completely held in abeyance by chemical or 
other means the body may be kept for hundreds of years. King Edward 
I., of England, buried in 1307, was found entire in 1770 (463 years) ; 
Canute died in 1036 and his body was found very fresh in 1776 (740 
years), and the bodies of William the Conqueror, and his Queen Matilda, 
were found entire at Caen in the sixteenth century. King Charles the 
First’s head was found 165 years after decapitation wrapped in a cere 
cloth and some unctuous matter which had preserved it from decompo¬ 
sition. Still more remarkable is the discovery, during the present year, 
of the mummy of the Pharoah, whose daughter adopted Moses, and whose 
face still shows him, although nearly a hundred years old at the time of his 
death, a vigorous and robust old man, with pride and kingly authority 


228 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BOHY. 


still imprinted there. This preservation, as has been said elsewhere, 
would have been impossible except in as dry a climate as Egypt, for one 
of the most jiotent aids to decomposition is 

MOISTURE. 


Water itself does not putrefy, but is essential to putrefaction; for, as 
we shall see later, it is essential to the growth of bacteria, and further¬ 
more a perfectly dried body does not undergo decomposition. Hence it 
is that pemmican and well “jerked beef” can be kept for long times. 
Similar reasons undoubtedly account for the preservation of human 
bodies in the Arabian desert and in the vaults at Strasburg (See page 30) 
and Charlottenburg, Prussia, where a low temperature and a drying 
wind have produced gradual and complete desiccation. Spare, thin 
bodies, with little fat or fluids, are most readily preserved in this way, 
but almost any organized compound may be thus kept, if first thoroughly 
dried and then completely protected from moisture. Dried eggs keep 
perfectly so long as they are kept from moisture. The cause of this dif¬ 
ference ought not to be sought alone in its difference in the amount of 
moisture, for coagulated white of an egg contains as much water as 
when it is liquid, but these changes are brought about, probably, by the 
fact that ferments themselves are albuminous, and similarly affected by 
the heat necessary for drying thoroughly egg albumen. 

The chief part that water plays in putrefaction is to facilitate the 
secretion and propagation of bacteria. (See later.) When a vegetable or 
an animal dies we may say with Becher that it gives up its life for the 
good of a multitude of vegetables and animals of an inferior order, and 
vegetable and animal life cannot exist without water. Laying aside for 
the moment all theories of the genesis of ferments and bacteria, we may 
say, without moisture no germs nor decomposition, so that the oldest of 
all means of preservation is that of desiccation. From all times grain 
has been dried because that moisture and heat causes it to germinate. 
Wet wood decomposes very rapidly; dry wood is more permanent ; but 
even that contains from ten to fifteen per cent of water, and if this is 
driven off by a complete desiccation it becomes protected from all future 
alteration. The abundance of water, nearly sixty per cent, in the body 
and its fluids, immediately and actively influences its dissolution, as may 
be readily seen by comparing Casper’s table of the order of decomposi¬ 
tion with the relative amount of water contained in each tissue, e. g .: 


Tissues. 

Mucous membrane 
Brain and nerves.. 

Spleen. 

Liver.. 

Lungs and heart . 


Percentage of water. 

.90 

. 78 

. 75 

. 69 

. 75 








PUTREFACTION FROM OXYGEN. 


when it will be found that the larger the percentage of water, the 
more rapid putrefaction, provided the organs are similarly exposed to 
the second factor in organic decomposition, viz.: 

OXYGEN OR THE AIR. 

An organic body entirely prevented from contact with the air can be 
preserved, as the same result takes place when it 'is removed from the 
action of moisture or heat. All of which facts were apparently well 
known to the Egyptians, and utilized by them in the preparation of 
their mummies (See pp. 35-36), and also by the Ethiopians if we can be¬ 
lieve Herodotus* tales in reference to the preservation of their dead (See 
Glass). Under ordinary circumstances exposure of a body to light, 
air and moisture, .accomplishes the dissolution of its soft parts entirely 
in from two to three years, and in so far as air is excluded is the process 
delayed. This was strikingly shown in the bodies of the Etruscan kings 
found some years ago in their rock sepulchers where they had been pre¬ 
served, protected from the atmosphere unchanged for hundreds of years, 
but no sooner was the air admitted than these bodies began to crumble, 
and in a few hours were converted into unrecognizable dust. 

Nearly a hundred years since, Benjamin Appert demonstrated that 
meat sealed up in air-tight boxes, after being heated, so as to expel the 
air, would keep for an indefinite length of time at ordinary tempera¬ 
tures. On this depends the modern extensive use of canned meats, for 
it is well known that, after having been heated and sealed up in air-tight 
cans, and thus protected from the atmosphere, meats will remain , sweet 
and fresh as long as the receptacle remains air-tight. We also know that 
fruits heated and sealed keep fresh and free from the fermentative process 
for a long time ; in fact there are said to be in the museum at Naples 
canned fruits, still edible, although sealed up in Pompeii more than 
1,800 years ago. 

Air is not an element, as was once thought, but a mixture of oxygen, 
nitrogen and carbon dioxide (See pp. 136-138) in the proportion of 21 
parts of the former to 79 of all other gases combined. This one-fifth 
part of oxygen is what is generally believed to be the chief agent 
in the breaking down of the body after death. Its union with the 
tissues, or their oxidation, produces many new compounds as we 
shall see hereafter, both innocuous and otherwise. Many causes 
influence the rapidity of this oxidation, not the least of which is the 
condition of the body at the time of death, for when it results from 
septic diseases putrefaction begins almost immediately after the body 
grows cold ; its effects are noticeable much sooner when the atmosphere 
is warm. In general, in our climate, the work of decomposition be¬ 
comes evident after from thirty-five to forty hours. Its first effects are 


230 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


noticable on the skin of the stomach ; this takes on a greenish discol¬ 
oration, which soon spreads and covers the whole surface of the body ; 
at the same time everything is seized upon by what is termed putridity; 
the moist parts soften and decay; little by little the flesh sinks and 
grows watery, and is thus carried away or burned up by the air's oxygen, 
for chemically the final results are the same whether a body be allowed 
slowly to rot for a term of years or is rapidly burned in a few minutes. 

But it must be remembered that the oxygen of the air is not the sole 
cause of putrefaction for it has been over and over again proven that 
while air is apparently essential to begin decomposition, it is not essen¬ 
tial to its continuance after it has once begun (See Oxygen in section on 
Antiseptics), and hence the failure of hermetically sealed coffins to pre¬ 
vent decomposition. The explanation of this is found in the fact 
that putrefaction largely depends upon microscopic germs or ova con¬ 
stantly floating in the atmosphere (See Bacteria), whose growth and mul¬ 
tiplication takes place whenever they are deposited by the air in an ap¬ 
propriate soil or fluid, among the best of which are the albuminous fluids 
of the body. The numbers and rapidity of multiplication of these bac¬ 
teria is almost incredible, for Cohn has shown that bacterial multipli¬ 
cation can arise in the course of about an hour. At this rate a single 
bacterium would produce two in one hour, these by doubling would in¬ 
crease to four in the second hour, and so on until in the lajise of three days 
the scarcely conceivable figure of 4,772,000,000,000 would be attained 
weighing in the aggregate 7,500 tons. In reality this scarcely conceiv¬ 
able rate of reproduction is not maintained long for want of nourishment. 
Yet a growth not far behind these marvelous figures can be observed when 
bacteria invade a favorable soil, such as a cooked potato. The merest 
speck with which the soil is infected will grow at the proper temperature 
at such a rate that within a day the whole potato becomes fairly alive. 

The part that bacteria play in putrefaction will be fully discussed 
under the appropriate head for which it is reserved. For the present we 
wish simply to allude to the presence of their ova in the air, and before 
speaking of bacteria take up the consideration of some of the other 
agents which influence the decomposition of the body. 

THE NATURE OF THE SOIL 

in which the body is deposited has much to do with the rapidity, or oth¬ 
erwise, of putrefaction. Damp and water-logged soils, clay and heavy 
loam, are most unfavorable to rapid decomposition, for in these cases, ex¬ 
cess of moisture and partial supply of air indefinitely prolong the pro¬ 
cess. Bodies of men, horses and other animals have been preserved for 
centuries in the bogs of Ireland and Scotland. 

Clayey soils often have remarkable preservative powers, as proven 


SOIL, HEAT AND COLD. 


231 


for instance, by the body of Gen. Wayne, which was perfectly kept for 
forty years in an argillaceous soil. Still more remarkable are the clay 
pits of Maine, where the bodies are preserved as far as embedded, while 
the exposed parts decay as usual. 

The soil that is most fitting for burial is a fine carboniferous mold, 
or a mixture of carbon, lime and sand. In such a soil the complete re¬ 
moval of the body, bones and all may, under proper conditions, be se¬ 
cured within a period of ten years. 

A fresh, carboniferous earth answers exceedingly well, far better than 
simple carbon, for it both disinfects with surprising rapidity, and 
equally rapidly destroys organic substances, if kept dry, twenty to thirty 
weeks being sufficient. In Naples it is the custom to bury in pits of 
earth with which lime has been mixed, and to bury so many bodies in 
one section on a given day, then to allow that section to remain unopened 
for a year, at the expiration of which time the whole of the earth is re¬ 
moved and a new mixture of earth and lime prepared for fresh burials. 

In open, porous, sandy or gravelly soils, on the other hand, in which 
drainage is perfect and the soil is always largely charged with air, the 
disinfection of buried carcasses or other infecting products takes place 
with great readiness. In such soils, as a rule, three years will complete 
decay, but in the tenacious and clayey lands ten to twelve often do not 
suffice. The British Home Office (Board of Health) wisely have 
ordered that “ no unwalled grave shall be opened within fourteen years 
after the burial of a person above twelve years or within eight years 
after the burial of a child under twelve years, etc. * * * and if on 

♦ reopening any grave the soil be found to be offensive, such soil shall not 
be disturbed and in no case shall human remains be removed from the 
grave/’ Not less important than soil are the effects on putrefaction of 

HEAT AND COLD. 

Sufficient absence of heat, or cold, as we usually call it, absolutely 
prevents putrefaction, for a body that is frozen cannot putrefy. A re¬ 
markable instance of this is given by Tidy, who states that the body of 
Prince Menchikoff, a favorite of Peter the Great, exhumed, after ninety- 
two years burial in frozen soil, at Beresov (in Siberia) had undergone 
hardly any change. “ The Quarterly Journal of Science,” vol. viii., page 
95, gives an account of the discovery, in a remarkable state of preserva¬ 
tion, of the body of an extinct species of elephant (E. primigenius) in a 
mass of ice in Siberia in the year 1805. After being dug from the ice 
the flesh was greedily eaten by the Laplanders, although geologists con¬ 
cur in their statement that the animal had been thus entombed for 
several thousand years. The skeleton of this animal is preserved in a 
museum at St. Petersburg, together with what of its skin had escaped 


232 


THE CHEMISTRY OF THE HUMAN BODY. 


destruction by the dogs of the Laplanders. Freezing in its etfects on 
putrefaction is very like perfect dryness, for a certain degree of heat 
seems to be necessary for the multiplication of the lower forms of life; 
but the range is between 40 and 300° F., for the latter kills all bacteria. 

Excessive heat produces an effect very like the privation of heat, not 
that intense heat which destroys organic matter, but such as is necessary 
to bring a body to the temperature of boiling water, holds decomposition 
in check. If the same high temperature could be maintained the pres¬ 
ervation of a substance would be assured so long as it is kept from 
moistness, but as soon as it is again subjected to the temperature of the 
ordinary air, ferments attack it and begin their alterations. We may 
then for the present, omitting the influence of bacteria, sum up the causes 
which retard putrefaction as: 

(a) Temperature of 32° F. (0° C.) and below this (cold weather 
and cold rooms.) 

(b) Temperature above 212° F. (100° 0.) Hemorrhages, if very 
profuse. 

(c 1 ) Complete or nearly complete immersion in water retards decom¬ 
position (See Drowning), or a very deep grave. 

(d) The body being protected by clothing, or other coverings. 

(e) Burial, especially in dry sand or earth, and burial very soon 
after death. 

(/) Dry, elevated ground, as a place of burial. 

(g) Some poisons, as arsenic, alcohol, chloroform, strychnine, phos¬ 
phorous, (Casper.) 

(h) Certain gases. Nitrogen, the residum of air inclosed in air-, 
tight coffins. 

(i) Leanness. 

O’) Old age, unless corpulence, or other special reason, as dropsy. 
Per contra. We should bear in mind the 

* Causes which favor putrefaction , viz.: 

(a) Temperature between 70° and 100° F. (21.1° and 37.7° C.) 
therefore summer weather and warm rooms. 

(b) Moisture—therefore brain and eyes soon putrefy, so do dropsical 
subjects. 

(c) Low swampy ground, as a place of burial. 

(d) Free access of air. 

(e) A shallow grave. 

(/) Absence of clothing. 

(g) Previous injuries and diseases, as bruises, wounds, inflamma¬ 
tions. 

(h) Sudden death. 

































Plate Iff. 







INJECTION IN THE CAROTID ARTERY. 


233 


(i) Acute diseases, especially peritonitis. 

( /) Childhood according to Orfila, the female sex—especially after 
childbirth. 

(k) Corpulence. 

(/) Animal poisons, prussic acid, and some of the poisonous gases. 

Plate IV. 

Figure II. gives the guide marks for opening the carotid artery for 
injection, viz.: Take one-half the distance between the lower angle (/>) 
of the jaw and the bony prominence back of the ear (a) and from this 
point (c) carry a line to the junction of the collar and breast bones. 
The artery as shown in the cut is most conveniently opened at a point 
jnst below the level of Adam’s apple. 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURE I. 


A. Primitive Carotid extending from bifurcation of the innominate 
to the upper border of the thyroid cartilage. 
o. m. 0mo-hyoid muscle. 

Sterno-hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles. 

Sterno-mastoid muscle pulled aside with a hook to show rela¬ 
tion of vessels beneath. 

Internal jugular vein. 

Pneumogastric nerve behind vein and artery and in same 
sheath. 

Internal and external carotids. 

Hypoglossal nerve. 

Facial artery. 


st. and It. 

s. m. 

B. 

C. 

D. and D. 
liy. n. 

F. 







SECTION IV. 


BACTERIA AND CHEMICAL PRODUCTS OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF 

THE HUMAN BODY. 


335 




SECTION IT. 


Bacteria and Chemical Products of the Decomposition of the 

Human Body. 

T HE last and the most important of the causes of putrefaction as is 
now believed, is the development upon the surface of a dead body of 
vibriones and bacteria—monas crepusculum and bacterium termo. The 
history of their discovery is somewhat long, but it so fully covers the 
various explanations of putrefaction that vve reproduce it mainly from 
Paulet. 

History: The earliest explanation of putridity was that of Becker, 
who taught that the decomposition of a body was occasioned by an astral 
fire; and according to him a healthy man resists these alterations by the 
balsamic spirit of his blood, or that property of the living body to which 
Van Helmont gave the name Varchee , or, as we now call it, vital force. 
Becker also believed in spontanous generation, or that the flesh of a duck 
could give birth to an owl apd the spinal cord to serpents; and taught that 
a dead body attracts from the air the microscopic eggs with which it is 
charged, for “the air,” he says, “is the common womb of these new 
generations.” Van Helmont was the first to observe that the presence 
of air was indispensable to fermentation and decomposition; and secondly, 
that an air or gas escaped from matters in decomposition. Stahl was 
the first to divide fermentation into three varieties, viz.: 

1. Alcoholic fermentation. 

2. Acetic fermentation. 

3. Putrid fermentation. 

George Ernst Stahl, the originator of the phlogiston theory in the 
last part of the seventeenth century, (1660), was the first who claimed 
that vinous fermentation and putrefaction are phenomena of the same 
order. He announced that fermentation was a process starting from the 
well-known infectious nature of putrefaction, and explained both as dis¬ 
turbances in the “molecules” of the fermenting body, bringing about a 
pre-existing molecular motion. 

In 1680, a Dutch philosopher by the name of Antony von Leu wen- 
hock, accidently examined some yeast with the microscope, and found it 

237 



238 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


to consist of minute globular, or oval patches. Microscopes in those 
days were very imperfect, or he would have made greater discoveries 
than he reported September 14, 1683, to Asten, member of the Royal 
Society London. His letter notes that by the means of the microscope, 
in the white matter taken from between his teeth, he had found “ani- 
malculae of graceful motion,” etc. He also distinguished and described 
several varieties which may even now be readily recognized ; and nine 
years later, (1692), he sent drawings to London which are still extant. 

McBride and Pringle in England, Haen in Austria, and Gabert in 
Turin, next undertook experiments by what we should now consider 
rude methods, to investigate putrefaction. Their mode of operation 
was about the same for all, viz.: they allowed decomposition to set 
in in slices of raw beef, cerebral matter, or urine, and then carefully 
studied the products which were thus formed. On the other hand be¬ 
fore decomposition had commenced they added to these substances agents 
which they Supposed would hinder or prevent it. The work of Pringle 
and McBride in 1750 excited so lively an interest in France that the 
Academy of Dijon in 1767 offered a prize to the author of the best 
monograph on antiseptics. From a number of memoirs then presented 
only three were chosen, rewarded and published, the first prize given 
to Boissieu of Lyons, the second to Bordenave of Paris, and the last to 
Godard of Venders. Many of the hypotheses then advanced have since 
been abandoned; as for instance, the theor}^ that astringents owed their 
powers to their ability to close organic pores, and that substances so 
treated became less inaccessible to air and were thus preserved from cor¬ 
ruption, but the work is still valuable and contains full descriptions of 
many substances still included among the most reliable of the antiseptics, 
such as the salts of mercury, copper and iron. Bordenave describes 
carefully in his essay powdered nut-galls, cinchona bark, alum, salts of 
tartar, blue vitriol, nitrate of lead, acetate of lead, sulphate of iron, 
nitrate of silver, and Boissieu adds to these balsam of Peru, camphor 
and Burgundy pitch. A little later Fourcroy took up the work with 
especial reference to the metalic salts and their reactions as antiseptics. 
About 1770, chemistry began to ask these preliminary questions : Is the 
gas given off from decomposing organic material acid or alkaline? Two 
camps immediately formed themselves, one to defend the alkalinity, and 
the other the acidity of these emanations, and a sharp discussion was carried 
on by the contemporaries of Lavoisier, Fourcroy, Halle and Guyton De 
Morveau, which stirred up the passions of even those savants themselves. 
The majority of the experiments carried on at this time were made with 
pieces of flesh under a bell glass, or even in bottles; and from these some 
of the experimenters concluded that air is indispensable to the decompo¬ 
sition of organic matter; while others, like Dr. Manners at Philadelphia, 


THEORIES OF PUTREFACTION. 


239 


and Thompson in England, declared that air played no part in these phe¬ 
nomena. Pringle thought that alkalies, so far from being a product of 
decomposition prevented it. Gabert answered Pringle very shortly that 
his experiments had not permitted the evolution of ammonia, because 
this was set free only at the end of decomposition, and that the alkalies 
could not be considered antiseptic. DeHaen then made some compar¬ 
ative experiments, placing in a flask fresh urine to which he added 
ammonia, then in another flask he placed an equal quantity of the same 
urine, and in a second sulphuric acid, while to a third he added 
nitric acid, and proved that in the two latter flasks the urine remained 
the longest unaltered. 

Marcorell published in 1782 the satisfactory results obtained by the 
milk of lime in arresting decomposition of animal matters. Finally 
Halle, in his work on the Nature and the Effects of Mephitism, brought 
the two parties into accord, for he showed that there was at the same 
time the production of acid and alkaline gases, viz: carbonic and 
ammoniacal. Next came the discoveries of Leuwenhock with the micro¬ 
scope in 1680, already described on page 238, after which, about 1838, 
Schwann and Cagnard Latour, by the use of better instruments, dis¬ 
covered that Leuwenhock's globules were membranous bags, and ex¬ 
hibited all the morphologic characteristics of vegetable cells, and like 
them, when brought under the proper conditions, increased and multi¬ 
plied (by division of themselves). 

Taking this, together with the well known fact, that in vinous fer¬ 
mentation the yeast increases as the process progresses, they concluded 
that yeast w r as a species of plant, and that it is this plant, somehow or 
other, which causes the chemical change called vinous fermentation. 

Schwann, for the purpose and principal aim—first, to solve the 
great question of spontaneous generation, and also for the purpose of 
demonstrating that putrefaction and fermentation were processes of sim¬ 
ilar characteristics, a fact he was at this time quite satisfied of,—tried a 
number of highly interesting experiments, and proved that bacteria per¬ 
formed the same office in putrefaction that yeast does in vinous fermen¬ 
tation. 

He prepared infusions of flesh and other putrescible matters, in 
glass flasks, and after having hermetically closed them, exposed them to 
the heat of boiling water, so as to destroy every trace of living germs 
that might be present. He found that the contents, when kept in that 
condition for any length of time, showed no signs of putrefaction, or of 
animalcular or germ life. But when exposed to the air, they did 
putrefy, and soon swarmed with living organisms of various kinds. 
Obviously it was either the air or substances floating therein that caused 
this two-fold change. And to determine this question he tried another 


240 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


set of experiments. He allowed the boiled infusions to communicate 
freely with the atmosphere, in such a manner, however, that no particle 
of air could enter the flask, without having first passed through a red- 
hot glass tube, and thus freed from any germs that might float in 
it. In this case the air had fair play in a chemical sense, but yet 
no life of any kind made its appearance, and even the chemical 
changes failed to set in. Exactly similar results were obtained by him 
in experiments with grape juice, whether previously mixed or not with 
yeast. These experiments demonstrate the fact, that the process of 
putrefaction is not only analogous to fermentation, but that putrefaction 
cannot take place without the access of the living germs constantly 
floating in the atmosphere. But he carried his experiment still further. 
For instance, he found that white arsenic (arsenious acid) and corro¬ 
sive sublimate being poisonous to both plants and animals, stop both 
putrefaction and fermentation, while extract of nux vomica, being 
destructive to animal but not of vegetable life, prevents putrefaction, 
but does not interfere with vinous fermentation. 

Justus Liebig published a memoir in 1848 upon the subject of fer¬ 
mentative changes, in which he reviewed and brought into a more defi¬ 
nite form Stahl’s theory. He too considered all ‘‘fermentations” and 
“putrefaction” as analogous phenomena, but considered yeast a “purely 
accidental phenomenon” in vinous fermentation, and thought its power 
of promoting the fermentative process was owing to the unstable albu¬ 
minoid substances it contained. 

Schroeder and Dusch, in 1854, proved by an extensive series of experi¬ 
ments, that the something in the air which enables it to start fermentative 
changes in boiled infusions of meat, etc., can be effectually removed by 
filtration of the air through cotton w'ool. 

These experiments carried on during the first half of the present cent¬ 
ury, proved that the intervention of air was not indispensable to putre¬ 
faction, but that the contact of a ferment with a putrescible body was 
sufficient to bring about the decomposition of the latter. Gay Lussac 
combated this opinion, and attempted to prove that without air or oxy¬ 
gen, vinous fermentation could not begin, for, said he, grape juice 
shut off from access to the air, as in a test tube over mercury, does not 
undergo fermentation; but if a few bubbles of air or oxygen are passed 
into it, fermentation begins and manifests itself by the evolution of car¬ 
bonic acid gas, and this gas occupies exactly the same volume as that of 
the oxygen which has been absorbed. These experiments seem to make 
a ferment and are the two corner-stones of the edifice of fermentation 
and putrefaction. 

But, suppose we admit that in this fermentation of the grape juice 
the ferment pre-exists in the pulp of the fruit, and for this purpose let 


FERMENTATION. 


241 


us examine the beer yeast, or the ferment which develops in a saccharine 
liquid during alcoholic fermentation. The study of this substance, com¬ 
menced by Lavoisier and continued by various chemists, was taken up 
in 183G by Cagnard-Latour. His researches demonstrated that beer 
yeast is composed of granules of nitrogenous and albuminous matter, 
and if these granules are introduced into a saccharine and albuminous 
liquid, that this albuminous fluid serves for the nutrition and reproduc¬ 
tion of these yeast granules. They reproduce themselves by gemmation, 
giving birth on their surface to new globules which rapidly increase in 
size, and give birth in turn to new globules. These globules are living, 
since they multiply themselves and partially transform sugar into car¬ 
bonic acid. If the saccharine liquid does not contain albuminous mat¬ 
ter, the ferment still brings about fermentation, but then the yeast 
consumes itself in place of multiplication. Fermentation, then, is the 
result of a vital act performed by the granules of a ferment. 

Experiments carried on in Germany next brought the German savants 
to the following conclusions: 

First—The oxygen of the air and a ferment are indispensable to fer¬ 
mentation. 

Second—The ferment is always albuminous matter possessing a large 
number of constituent elements which have a strong tendency towards 
disassociation. 

Third—The elements which thus set themselves free re-group 
themselves in the form of vapors and gases, and communicate to neighbor¬ 
ing molecules, a like tendency towards disassociation. 

The drift, however, of later experiments seems to show that it is not 
a gas but rather a dead substance which determines these changes ; “liv¬ 
ing its own life at the expense of superior beings. '" (Mojan.) 

This living matter seems to exist in the form of organic dust floating 
in the atmosphere, which asrial dust floats in considerable quantity in 
the atmosphere, especially during the summer, and plays a very import¬ 
ant part in all fermentation and organic decomposition. 

This dust can frequently be seen by the naked eye in a dark room in 
which a single ray of light is allowed to enter, in which it may be seen to 
float hither and thither as minute particles. 

Undoubtedly these are the same as the corpuscles vaguely and myster¬ 
iously suspected, perhaps, by Vincent Deauvais, and later directly accused 
by Becker, and finally fully demonstrated by Schwann in 1837. In 
this year Schwann related to a Society of Natural History of Jena this 
important experiment, namely: 

That animal substances could be preserved without alteration so long 
as they remain in calcined air, or that from which these organic corpus¬ 
cles had been burnt out. It was, however, reserved for Louis Pasteur 
16 


242 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


between 1857 and 1881 to make an exhaustive study of the organized 
dust contained in the air, and to exactly describe the part that it takes in 
the phenomena of organic decomposition. He also discriminated be¬ 
tween true ferments and the germs of ferments. Atmospheric dust is 
made up in the greater part of earthy matter mixed with organic debris, 
to wit: Microscopic spores and infusorial eggs, which latter are, according 
to M. Pasteur, the prime agent in decomposition. Oxygen is not the 
motive agent in these decompositions as affirmed by Gay Lussac, neither 
does the nitrogenous atoms of the atmosphere play the important part 
in decomposition, but these minute organisms which possess a frightful 
power of multiplication. (See page 230.) Moreover he showed that 
the oxygen of the air is powerless to bring about these alterations if the 
corpuscles that it usually contains are eliminated or incinerated. In 
1864 the French Academy chose from itself a commission which repeated 
the experiments of M. Pasteur and proved their exactness by taking a 
flask filled with calcined air and attaching it to a tube, whereby a partial 
vacuum may be produced. By a proper arrangement blood may be 
drawn from a living animal directly into such a flask without coming in 
contact at all with the air and such blood does not undergo putrefaction, 
provided the air in the flask had already been brought to a red heat. 

k urther experiments conclusively proved that the development of 
putrefaction took place, not from the gaseous elements of the air, but 
from something that they allowed to fall from them in a vertical direc¬ 
tion, for sterilized fluid placed in a flask with a long neck laid sideways 
did not undergo putrefaction until the neck was allowed to stand upright 
and open to the air. To isolate this matter M. Pasteur forced tlie aspi¬ 
rated air through a tube filled with gun cotton, which is entirely soluble 
in ether, and this solution showed on the slide of a microscope bodies 
evidently organized. A fresh grape washed in distilled water by the 
same experimenter, gave to this water a multitude of yellowish organized 
corpuscles resembling the spores of moles or of the yeast plant, and like 
them, easily defined by the microscope. If now the pulp of this grape 
after its washing is placed in a glass flask containing calcined air it does 
not ferment, but if you add to it a few drops of this wash water the 
micoderma vini, or grape ferment, appears and fermentation begins ; if, 
however, this wash water has been previously subjected to boiling, no 
fermentation ensues from the contact of the water whose properties have 
been modified by a temperature which kills the germs. In general as 
vitality departs, germ life commences. “ Minute fungi, the germs which 
are from one twenty-thousandth of an inch in diameter up, so small that 
they float on the air scarcely influenced by the force of gravitation, so 
minute that they pass into the substance of the wood with the sap, and 
even penetrate the bark, leaves and stump; and with that they remain 


OXIDATION BY BACTERIA. 


243 


an indefinite period inert and then can be called into sudden vitality by 
atmospheric changes favorable to their germination, are well known 
facts. The marvelous rapidity with which they multiply is simply won¬ 
derful, a single plant producing millions of these reproductive bodies.” 
Such is the modern theory of putrefaction and zymotic disease, hereafter 
to be more fully described, (See Diseases), at which time we shall attempt 
to describe other varieties of bacteria. For the present we shall confine 
our description to the forms met with in butyric, ammoniacal, and lactic 
fermentations, all of which occur in the dead body; and for this 
purpose we shall quote freely from SchutzenbergeFs comprehensive work 
on Fermentation. 

A. PUTREFACTION BY OXIDATION. 

\ 

“ The oxidation of dead tissues was usually supposed to occur without 
the intervention of bacteria, until Pasteur succeeded in showing that in 
the well-known phenomena of putrefaction many facts, supposed to be 
due to oxidation only, are accomplished by the aid of the lower forms of 
life. The first of these is butyric acid fermentation, hereafter to be 
considered, and the second is what has been named eremacausis, or slow 
combustion. 

“ Slow combustion, according to Pasteur, is due to bacteria, mucors, 
and mucidines, that is to say, vegetable ferments, which, like the vinegar 
ferments and others, possess the remarkable property of exciting the 
oxidation of a great number of organic principles, such as sugars, 
alcohols, organic acids, albuminoids, nitrogenous matter, etc., at the 
expense of the oxygen of the air. 

“After having proved, by careful experiments, that spontaneous slow 
combustion of animal or vegetable substances depend necessarily on the 
development of organisms in the interior, or on the surface, of the sub¬ 
stances which are in process of decomposition, and that without these 
organisms there is neither combustion nor absorption of oxygen, Pasteur 
thus traces the course of putrid decomposition in contact with air. 
Even the most easily decomposed animal matter as, for instance, blood 
or urine, may be preserved for an indefinite length of time in air which 
has been calcined or deprived of its germs; under these conditions the 
absorption of oxygen is but trifling, and putrefaction does not take place; 
and at the same time no infusoria are produced. If, on the contrary, 
this same substance remains exposed to the ordinary air, it is oxi¬ 
dized, putrefied, and infusoria are developed. It is commonly known 
that putrefaction takes a certain time to declare itself, a period vary¬ 
ing according to the circumstances of temperature and the neutral, 
acid or alkaline character of the liquid. Under the most favorable 
circumstances, at least twenty-four hours are required before the phe- 


244 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


nomenon begins to manifest itself by external signs. During the first 
period internal movement takes place in the liquid, the effect of 
which is to withdraw entirely the oxygen of the air which is in 
solution, and to substitute for it carbon dioxide gas. The total dis¬ 
appearance of the oxygen, when the medium is neutral or slightly 
alkaline, is generally due to the development of the smallest kinds of 
infusoria, especially the Monas crepusculum and the Bacterium termo . 
A very slight troubling then takes place, because these little beings pass 
about in all directions. If the vessel containing the putrescible liquid 
has a large opening to the air, the bacteria perish only in the liquid 
mass after the removal of the oxygen, while they continue, on the 
•contrary, to propagate, ad infinitum, on the surface, because it is in con¬ 
tact with the air. There they cause a thin film to form, which goes on 
thickening by degrees until it falls to the bottom of the vessel; then 
another forms, and so on continually. ” 

This film, to which different mucors and mucidines are attached, pre¬ 
vents the solution of oxygen gas in the liquid, and consequently allows 
the development of vibriones. With respect to these latter organisms, 
the vessel is as if it were closed against the introduction of air. 

Thus the putrescible liquid gives rise to two distinct kinds of chem¬ 
ical reactions, one consisting of the transformation of nitrogenous mat¬ 
ter in the interior of the fluid into more simple compounds by the action 
of the vibriones which thrive by the oxygen of air. The second is due to 
bacteria (or the mucors), which consume these same products, and bring 
them to the state of the most simple ordinary combinations, water, 
ammonia, and carbon dioxide. 

The compounds which longest resist slow combustion are the fixed 
fatty acids, forming the adipocere of the old chemists; cellulose, or its 
derivatives formed by dehydration, such as ulmic acids, vegetable mold, 
peat, etc. 

The oleic acid, on the contrary, disappears altogether. But little is 
known of the details of these various phenomena of slow combustion. 

Fully as important as oxidation in the destruction of the body is that 
form of decomposition to which has been given the name of • 

B. AMMONIACAL FERMENTATION. 

or putrefaction, for we have already learned that ammonia is one of the 
invariable products of albuminoid decomposition (See page 258). The 
influence of bacteria in this is well shown in the case of urea, which, 
if pure, may be kept in aqueous solution for a long time unchanged; 
but this does not happen in the urine which contains salts and other 
nitrogenous principles very similar to albuminous substances, as well as 
urea. 


AMMONIACAL FERMENTATION. 


;M5 

After a longer or shorter time, according to the conditions of tem¬ 
perature, and the state of health of the individual who has excreted the 
urine, this liquid, after its emission, becomes alkaline, instead of acid as 
it was before; at the same time it exhales a very decided odor of am- 
monia; at this moment the urea has disappeared entirely; we find in its 
place an equivalent quality of ammonium carbonate. (See page 143.) 

In certain cases the urine is already alkaline and ammoniacal, when 
in the bladder. 

According to the observations of Muller and of Pasteur, the trans¬ 
formation of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide is due to the inter¬ 
vention of a special organic ferment, produced by one of the tondacii, 
formed of chaplets of globules very similar to those of beer-yeast, but 
much smaller; their diameter is about one five-thousandth of a millimetre 
(.0000078 in.) M. Yon Tieghem has very thoroughly studied this fer¬ 
ment, which is found in the white deposit left at the bottom of urinals. 

Long study of the organic products which are developed in urine 
exposed to the air, has convinced M. Yon Tieghem of the constant pres¬ 
ence of a torula whenever urea ferments ; and of the intimate connection 
which exists between its easy or difficult development, and the rapid or 
slow transformation of the urea. We quote his own words on the 
subject. 

“In the case, seldom realized, in which the torulaceous growth is 
developed alone, the liquid remains limpid, the fermentation is rapid, 
and the deposit which forms at the bottom of the vessel is composed ex¬ 
clusively of urates and of ammonium-magnesium phosphates. If the 
torulaceous growth is only accompanied by infusoria, as is usually the 
case, the fermentation, though somewhat slower, is still easy ; but if 
there appear, besides the infusoria, vegetable productions in the liquid 
and on the surface, the torulaceous growth is developed with difficulty, 
and the transformation is very slow; the liquid may remain acid or 
neutral for months together. 

“ The transformation of urea in urine is therefore correlative to the 
life and development of an organic vegetable ferment. This ferment is 
developed within the liquid itself; and especially at the bottom of the 
vessel where, by its accumulation, it forms a whitish deposit, and is com¬ 
posed of chaplets, or small masses of spherical globules, without granu¬ 
lations, without any distinct envelope of the contents, and which appear 
to develop by budding; their diameter is about .0015 millimeters 
(.000059 in.)” 

M. Von Teighem considers that he has also proved by direct experi¬ 
ment that the splitting up of hippuric acid by hydration, into benzoic 
acid and glycocol is due to a fermentation analogous to that which splits 
up the urea. The active ferment must be identical with the ammoniacal 


/ 


246 BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 

ferment. Thus ammonium hippurate dissolved, either in yeast-water or 
in a solution of sugar containing phosphates is always split up in conse¬ 
quence of the development of a microscopic vegetable organism identical 
with the torulaceous growth described before. 

According to Muller, the activity of the phenomenon is proportionate 
to the number of globules; when to a mixture of sugar and urea, 
dissolved in water, we add beer-yeast, we always see the small globules of 
ammoniacal ferment make their appearance, as*soon as the liquid shows 
an alkaline reaction. 

The yeast of beer, by itself, decomposes the sugar without exciting 
the decomposition of the urea. The most suitable temperature is that 
of the human body, 99° F. (37° 0.). 

Finally, it has been proven that the ferment does not preexist in the 
urine; it must, therefore, be brought from without, in the form of 
germs, as we also observe in the more complex compounds, known under 
the name of ureids, in which the molecule of urea is associated with 
other organic groups, such as uric acid, alloxan creatin, etc. 

C. BUTYRIC FERMENTATION. 

A great number of chemical compounds are susceptible of ferment¬ 
ing butyrically, that is to say, yielding butyric acid as a product of their 
transformation, when they are placed under suitable conditions. 

Such are lactic acid, and all substances capable of undergoing lactic 
fermentation—sugars, amylaceous matter, tartaric, citric, malic, mucic 
acids, and albuminoid substances. 

In M. Pasteur’s opinion, butyric decomposition is due to the presence 
in the liquid of a special ferment —fermentum butyricum, thus described 
“ Butyric ferment is composed of little cylindrical rods, rounded at the 
extremities, usually straight, either isolated or united into a chain of 
two, three or four joints, and even of more. The diameter of these 
small rods is generally of a millimetre, and the length of the isolated 
portions from to T f£o of a millimetre. (.0000687 to .000687 inches.) 
These organisms move forward by sliding. During this movement their 
body remains rigid or undulates slightly; they spin round, they balance 
themselves on end, and agitate their extremities ; they are often bent. 
These singular organisms are reproduced by fission. The butyric fer¬ 
ment is, therefore, an infusorium of the genus vibrio.” 

The same writer has ascertained that this ferment, placed in a solu¬ 
tion of sugar containing phosphates and ammoniacal salts, reproduces, 
and causes butyric fermentation. 

‘The most favorable temperature is 140° F. (40° C.). The medium 
should be neutral or slightly alkaline. An acid medium is opposed to 
the development of the germs of butyric fermentation. However, when 


PUTRID FERMENTATION. 


/C -t i 

once formed, they can live and excite the decomposition of sugar or 
lactic acid in an acid medium, provided there be no excess of acidity. 
M. Pasteur first asserted that butyric vibriones not only lived without 
free oxygen, but that oxygen kills them. The respiratory theory of 
fermentation proposed by this observer, however, does not agree with 
this fact. If fermentation is the result of such a need of oxygen, that 
the ferment takes it up from organic compounds exciting their decom¬ 
position by a rupture of equilibrium, we cannot understand how oxygen 
can act as a poison to the ferment. I do not know whether M. Pasteur 
has since maintained the opinion that oxygen kills butyric vibriones.” 

The conditions of nutrition of butyric ferment are, according to 
Pasteur, the same as those of ferments in general. However, consider¬ 
ing its tardy appearance, as compared with lactic ferment, in mixtures 
which undergo lacto-butyric decomposition, we may admit that it 
requires albuminoid substances in a process of more advanced change for 
its nourishment. 

D. PUTRID FERMENTATION. 

Albuminoid substances and bodies allied to them, which enter into 
the composition of living organism, have for a long time, enjoyed a 
special reputation for instability, which varies, however, according to 
the nature of the substance, for as soon as the influence of life is with¬ 
drawn (the vital force which alone was able to maintain them in their 
integrity), these products begin to be transformed, to change, and to be 
decomposed into several principles, among which are found compounds 
with a strong and putrid odor. The researches of Appert on the preser¬ 
vation of animal substances, and those of Gay Lussac on the fermen¬ 
tation of grapes, had given the idea that the momentary intervention of 
oxygen is necessary to excite the first step in this decomposition. This 
initial impulse once given, the phenomenon of decomposition goes on 
spontaneously; and the organic matter in process of transformation is 
even susceptible of transmitting the molecular movement with which it 
is imbued, to more stable bodies, such as sugar, which of themselves 
undergo no modification. This is, as we have already seen, the theory 
of fermentation borrowed by Liebig from Stahl and Willis, with certain 
modifications of form. 

However, Schwann had shown that the greater part of bodies subject 
to decomposition, when heated in a retort with water so as to drive 
out all the air by boiling are no longer decomposed, if instead 
of allowing ordinary air to enter the retort as it grows cold, we are 
careful only to admit air previously subjected to a red heat. Under 
these conditions, putrefaction does not make its appearance, and we no 
longer observe the development of infusoria and mildews. 


248 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


The abundant presence of infusoria and mildews in putrefaction had 
been long known, but it was not thought that these microscopic beings 
were the true causes which determined the decomposition. They are 
developed, it was said, owing to germs brought by the air or already con¬ 
tained in the decomposing bodies, or by spontaneous generation, and 
because they find a soil favorable to their nutrition. The bond between 
their appearance and putrefaction was one of concomitance. 

Schwann and the other authors quoted above, thought, on the con¬ 
trary, that the germs of infusoria and of mildews set up putrefaction by 
their development; and as a proof of this, they brought forward their 
experiments, in which putrefaction was no longer produced, when the 
preexistent germs were destroyed, and their introduction by means of 
the air was prevented. 

As the calcination of the air gave rise to some objections, especially 
to that of a possible change in the constituent principles of this gaseous 
mixture, Schroeder and Th. A". Dusch repeated Schwann’s experi¬ 
ments, with this difference, that instead of allowing calcined air to re¬ 
enter the retort in which thjs organic substance had been boiled, they 
simply filtered the air through a sufficiently thick layer of cotton wool; 
they thus succeeded in mechanically arresting the germs and solid mat¬ 
ters held in suspension, but without influencing in any way the proper¬ 
ties and the composition of the air. The wort of beer, broth, meats 
recently boiled in water are then preserved very well, even during sum¬ 
mer heat. 

Some contradictory facts, however, lent support to the arguments of 
the adversaries of the theory of putrefaction under the influence of infu¬ 
soria. Thus, the authors of the before-mentioned exjoeriments had 
themselves ascertained that milk recently boiled coagulates, grows sour, 
and putrefies, just as well in air that has been strained as in ordinary 
air; meat not steeped in water, but simply heated in a water-bath, is 
also not preserved in strained air. In these two cases we observe neither 
infusoria nor mildew, and yet decomposition is produced. 

It is then evident, it was said (Gerhardt), that it is indeed the air 
which brings and deposits in matter, in a state of putrefaction, the germs 
of organisms, but it is not less certain that these are not the first cause 
of decomposition, since it can be produced without their intervention. 
If the calcined or strained air is less active, in many experiments, than 
ordinary air, it is because not only are the germs of infusoria removed 
by these operations, but also the remains of decomposed matter which 
are suspended in it; that is to say, ferments whose activity would be 
added to that of oxygen. 

The question was in this state when Pasteur resumed the study of 
putrefaction, by looking upon it in the same light as had guided him in 


PUTREFACTION BY BACTERIA. 


^49 


his researches in fermentation. Guided by the idea that all these 
phenomena can he explained by the presence, the development, and the 
multiplication of microscopical plants or animals, he sought to prove 
that some of these exist also in the putrefaction of animal, nitrogenous 
substances. 

These experiments were conducted by two methods which lead to the 
same end and confirm each other. 

“On the one hand they tend to show putrefaction is always accompa¬ 
nied by the presence, the development, and the multiplication of infin¬ 
itely small, organized living beings; on the other hand, they prove that 
whenever we place ourselves under conditions calculated to avoid the 
presence of the germs of organisms, at the commencement of the experi¬ 
ment, decomposition does not take place even in products the most liable 
to it. 

“By the precision of these experiments he removed the objections 
raised by the partial decompositions noticed by his predecessors, 
Shroeder and V. Dusch, and which we have mentioned before. Many 
trials made by Pasteur lead to a positive solution of the question, for by 
preventing contact of the germs with animal matter, we prevent, at the 
same time, every trace of fermentation from showing itself. 

“M. Pasteur distinguishes two orders of phenomena in putrefaction; 
some are produced under the influence of organic ferments which live 
without the aid of oxygen, like butyric ferment; in others, on the con¬ 
trary, the oxygen takes part, as an essential element, promoting com¬ 
bustion; oxidation is also excited by organisms.” 

When, in a putrescible liquid containing albuminoid organic matter, 
the dissolved oxygen has been absorbed, and has completely disappeared 
under the influence of the first infusoria developed, such as Monas 
crepusculum, and the Bacterium termo, “the vibrio ferments, which do 
not require the gas to sustain their life, begin to show themselves, and 
putrefaction is immediately set up. It is accelerated by degrees, follow¬ 
ing the progressive increase of the vibriones. As to the putridity, it-be- 
comes so intense, that the examination of a single drop of the liquid, 
under the microscope, is a very painful task.” 

“It follows, from what has been said, that contact of air is by no 
means necessary for the development of putrefaction. On the contrary, 
if the oxygen dissolved in a putrescible liquid was not at once removed 
by the action of special organisms, putrefaction would not take place; 
the oxygen would destroy the vibriones which would try to develop at first. 

“ When the putrescible liquid is exposed to the air, we notice the two 
kinds of reactions simultaneously, there forms on the surface a complete 
film, composed of bacteria, mucors and mucidines, which excludes the 
oxygen and prevents its penetrating into the liquid. The vibriones which 


250 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


multiply there, under shelter of this rampart, transform by fermentation 
the albuminoid matter into more simple products, while the bacteria 
and mucors excite the combustion of these products, and bring them 
back to the state of the least complex chemical combinations/’ Such 
is the representation of the whole of the phenomena of putrefaction as 
drawn by M. Pasteur. 

The opinion held by Schwann, Ure, Helmholtz, Schroeder and V. 
Dusch, and finally by Pasteur, relative to the cause of putrefaction, is 
corroborated by the very process which is employed to preserve perish¬ 
able bodies. The conditions of preservation are such as oppose the 
development of organisms. 

Such are the employment of cold, 32° F. (zero C.), and below; or 
of a sufficiently high temperature. Cooked albuminous matter resists 
putrefaction much longer, because the germs which were there are de¬ 
stroyed; but decomposition will, nevertheless, show itself, if we do not 
carefully guard against effects from without. Appert’s process, which 
consists in cooking meat or other perishable substances, in tin boxes 
hermetically sealed, realizes these conditions. The germs are killed and 
there is no possibility of fresh ones entering. As, at the same time, the 
small quantity of air contained in the box loses its oxygen, it has been 
thought that the preservation depended on this complete elimination of 
the oxygen at 212° F. (100 c C.). 

The total absence of water very efficaciously opposes the development 
of living organisms. Thus we can preserve, as we may say, indefinitely, 
dried meat and vegetables. 

All substances known as antiseptics are also enemies to ferments. 
Thus common sea salt, alcohol, creosote, carbolic, salicylic acid, and sul¬ 
phurous acid, the sulphates, potassium salts, the acids, many metallic 
salts, as those of copper, mercury, iron, aluminum, arsenious acid, prus¬ 
sic acid, lime water, the antiseptic properties of which are well known 
and have been frequently tried ; all these are also poisons to ferments of 
various kinds in the quantities in which they are active. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

The preservative action of oil, grease, ashes, fine sand, bran, sawdust, 
coatings of paraffin or gelatine, is explained by these porous or imperme¬ 
able bodies preventing the approach and access of germs brought by the 
air, like the cotton wool in Scliroeder’s experiments. 

PRODUCTS OF PUTREFACTION. 

The products of putrefaction are numerous. This may be easily 
understood, first, because the putrid change of an organ or liquid 
directly taken from the animal or vegetable economy is the resultant of the 
decomposition of the various constituents which are found in it. The 


PRODUCTS OF PUTREFACTION. 


251 


special study of the products of putrefaction of each particular albumin¬ 
oid substance has only been attempted in a very few cases. 

In the second place, the compounds, definite in composition, which 
undergo putrid fermentation, are so complex in their constitution, that 
we ought to expect to meet with a great number of derivatives formed 
by putrid decomposition 

The most constant products which make their appearance in putre¬ 
factions protected from the air are leucin, and probably some of its 
horpologues, tyrosin, the volatile fatty acids of the series C n H 2n 0 2 (formic, 
acetic, propionic, butyric, valerianic, caproic, etc.), ammonia, and some 
compound ammonias (ethylamine, propylamine, amylamine, trimethy- 
lamine), carbon dioxide, sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. 

We shall refer later to the decomposition of albuminoid substances, 
etc. The albuminoids contain the elements of urea, and ought to be con¬ 
sidered as compound ureids. This fact alone explains the appearance of 
carbon dioxide, and of a part of the ammonia. (See ammoniacal fer¬ 
mentation.) 

“The albuminoids are decomposed by hydration under the influence 
of baryta, etc., furnishing leucin and some of its homologues, tyrosin and 
a sulphide. These first products may, probably, undergo the ulterior 
action of ferments, and yield ammonia and volatile fatty acids. We 
know, in fact, that in presence of putrefied fibrin, leucin is resolved into 
ammonia and valerianic acid thus : 

0 2 -f2 H 2 O==O 5 H 10 O 2 -|-NH 3 +C0 9 + H 4 

Everything leads us to believe that putrefaction is a complex phenome¬ 
non —that it is onlv a successive series of fermentations exerted on more 

*i 

and more simple products. 

“Thus, for example, when we leave fibrin to spontaneous decomposi¬ 
tion, without access of air, it is resolved into principles, as under the 
influence of sea salt. One of these principles is albumen, which, on 
account of its greater resistance to the action of ferments, will be found 
for a long time in the putrid liquid. The second product of this decom¬ 
position, undergoing somewhat quickly a more thorough change, yields 
acetic, butyric, valerianic and caproic acids, as well as ammonia, which 
are evidently derived from the amido-acids, homologous with leucin. 

“The chemical reactions which accompany the putrefaction of the 
albuminoids are then, for the most part, phenomena of hydration, 
which may be reproduced identically by chemical forces alone, inde¬ 
pendently of vital action. Thus we shall see that phenomena of this 
kind may be excited by the action of soluble ferments; and we are 
induced to suppose that a part, at least, of the transformations under¬ 
gone by proteids, and their more immediate derivatives, are the conse¬ 
quence of phenomena of this order (indirect fermentation). 


252 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


“ Nothing resembles fermentation, with reference to the derived prod¬ 
ucts, more nearly than the change which takes place in the constituent 
parts of yeast, when left to itself without nourishment, deprived of 
sugar and oxygen. 

“We see, in fact, the appearance of leucin, tyrosin, sarcine, etc. 
This is the first step; the action stops there, and goes no further ; 
the yeast, or the special soluble ferment which it secretes, is unfit to 
attack these bodies again ; but if we wait for the development of 
vibriones, we shall find the production of ammonia, carbon dioxide, 
and volatile fatty acids at the same time that leucin partly disap¬ 
pears. 

“M. Ulysse Gayon has published quite recently as a thesis for the 
‘Doctorat des Sciences/ the result of many experiments on the sponta¬ 
neous decomposition of eggs. The question was important, and very 
interesting to the adversaries of the theory of spontaneous generation. 
Besides, the facts observed by M. Donne and M. Bechamp on the subject 
seemed contrary to the ideas of M. Pasteur on the general cause of putre¬ 
faction. M. Gayon, a pupil and demonstrator of M. Pasteur, endeav¬ 
ored to bring the spontaneous decomposition of eggs and their putrefac¬ 
tion under the general law enunciated by his teacher. 

“ M. Donne had read ‘ If we take eggs in their natural state, not shaken, 
and leave them to themselves they remain for weeks and months, even 
during the great heat of summer, without undergoing any putrid de¬ 
composition. The egg has no unpleasant smell, and nothing possessing 
either animal or vegetable life is produced, either on the surface of 
the membrane or in the inside; there are no traces of infusoria or 
microscopical vegetation. 

“‘If, on the contrary, we destroy the physical structure of the 
interior of the egg by shaking; if, that is to say, we break up the 
texture, and the cells of the albuminous substance, and thus mix 
together the yolk and the white, then, even without access of the 
external air, and even guarding against this intervention by extra pre¬ 
cautions, such as a coating of collodion spread over the surface of the 
egg, we find all the phenomena of decomposition make their appear¬ 
ance, after a longer or shorter time, according to the temperature, but 
always less than a month, all the phenomena of decomposition, with the 
exception, however, of the production of living organisms, either vegetable 
or animal; for whatever may be the degree of rottenness to which we 
allow the egg to proceed, we can never find the slightest trace of animal¬ 
cule, or of microscopic vegetable life; the matter of the egg grows 
troubled and of a livid color; it exhales a fetid odor directly we break 
the shell, but nothing, absolutely nothing, stirs in its substance; nothing 
lives, and the most careful and frequently repeated examinations by 



PUTREFACTION OF EGGS. 


253 

means of the microscope does not enable us to discover the least trace 
of an organized or living being/ ” 

“ M. U. Gayon’s experiments, into the details of which we cannot 
enter, led him to the following conclusions: 

“ ‘ Putrefaction in eggs, whether in the presence or absence of air, is 
correlative to the development and multiplication of microscopical 
organisms of the family of vibriones. 

“ ‘ In other terms, contrary to the result found by M. Donne and M. 
Bechamp, eggs make no exception to the great law of correlation, which 
M. Pasteur has demonstrated for all the phenomena of fermentation, 
properly so called/ 

“We are thus, on the subject of eggs, confronted by two distinct 
affirmations, as much opposed as black and white. M. Donne found 
them; M. Gayon did not. We have no balance wherewith to estimate 
and compare the skill of the two observers. It appears to us certain 
that M. Gayon saw what he described ; but we cannot affirm that M. 
Donne was absolutely mistaken, and that the eggs, in the conditions 
under which he placed them, contained vibriones, which he did not find. 

“In the absence of any other criterion, we bring forward a very 
important fact, mentioned by M. Gayon himself. 

“This skillful microscopist observed that some of the eggs experi¬ 
mented upon at the temperature of 77° F. (25° 0.), whether shaken or 
not, underwent a special modification, distinct from ordinary putridity 
and from acid fermentation. 

“The decomposed mass is of a dirty yellow color, it has an odor of 
dried animal matter, and is very fluid; we see in it, also, a great number 
of needle-like crystals formed of tyrosin. It contains much greater 
quantities of tyrosin and leucin than are found in ordinary putrefac¬ 
tion. M. Gayon was not able, under these circumstances, to find any 
trace of microscopic organisms either in the inside, on the surface, or in 
the substance of the membrane. However, tyrosin and leucin are 
evident and unquestionable evidence of the decomposition of albu¬ 
minoid matter. 

“ Between the production of these substances and the phenomena 
called putrefaction there is, chemically speaking, no very clear distinc¬ 
tion to be drawn. They are reactions of the same order, decompositions, 
more or less extensive, of the proteid molecules; the traces of sulphur¬ 
etted hydrogen and other fetid products which communicate such a re¬ 
pulsive odor to putrefaction, cannot serve to establish an absolute and 
philosophical line of demarcation between the decomposition without 
organisms observed by M. Gayon, and what is wrongly termed putrefac¬ 
tion properly so-called. 

“The result of this seems to be, that albuminoid matters are able to 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


undergo certain decomposition—certain changes, without the intervention 
of living organisms. 

“ By means of a very simple and ingenious apparatus, M. Gayon suc¬ 
ceeded in extracting the gas contained in large ostrich eggs in a state of 
putrefaction. 

“ One of these eggs, in a state of thorough putrefaction, yielded 150 
cubic centimetres of gas, containing per cent : 


Sulphuretted Hydrogen.Traces 

Carbon dioxide.30.5 

Hydrogen.4.02 

Nitrogen. . .29.3 


100.0 


“ The presence of nitrogen might be due to the accumulation of a cer¬ 
tain quantity of air in the air-bubble before putrefaction. 

“Among the solid and liquid product of the putrefaction of eggs, the 
presence of small quantities of leucin and tyrosin, alcoholic products, 
and volatile acids, butyric acid, etc., were recognized. The sugar had 
disappeared/’ (Schutzenberger.) 

PRODUCTS OF PUTREFACTION. 

And now, at last, we are prepared to review the products of putre¬ 
faction, to understand which it requires both the aid of the chemist 
and microscopist; for putrefaction is due in part to re-arrangement of 
organic compounds in accordance with the laws of chemistry, and in part 
to changes produced by bacterial growths. We have briefly considered 
the latter as fully as the limits of the present section will allow ; our re¬ 
maining space will barely suffice for a brief mention of the more impor¬ 
tant chemical productsarising from the decomposition of a human body. 
These are very many, for under the proper circumstances each of the 
hundred or more proximate principles (See page 131-154) become de¬ 
composed and give rise to new products. The inorganic compounds are 
the more stable; and with the exceptions hereafter to be noted, as a rule, 
leave the body in the form in which they enter it; but is very different t 
with organic compounds, especially with the albuminoids and fats, which 
together constitute about a third (52 pounds) of a normal body, as may be 
seen by the annexed division of the body according to its proximate prin¬ 


ciples : 

Water.95 lbs. 

Fat...28 “ 

Albuminoids.24 “ 

Inorganic Salts. 7 “ 


154 













COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD. 


255 


The water (95 pounds) includes that of the body and its fluids. The 
part that water plays in the decomposition of the body has already been 
discussed, so that for the present we need only remind the reader 
that as a general rule the larger proportion of water, an organ of the 
body contains, the more rapid its putrefaction. Hence, as might be ex¬ 
pected, the fluids of the body other than those which contain natural an¬ 
tiseptics, are those which most rapidly develop bacterial growths, and 
putrefactive changes. No better instance of this can be found than 
mucus (page 159) which, according to Beale, is a culture fluid for bac¬ 
teria even during life. 

“ Every time we eat myriads are carried into our alimentary canal : 
and every time we breathe, except in the very purest atmosphere, multi¬ 
tudes pass into the air passages. So small are these bacterial germs that 
they would pass without the slightest difficulty through basement mem¬ 
brane, and through the interstices of any of the tissues of the organism. 
As a fact, ordinary bacteria are harmless enough ; they exist in us with¬ 
out disturbing us in any way, but they only grow and multiply in great 
numbers when circumstances become favorable. I can give positive 
proof that bacteria germs exist not only upon the surface of the skin and 
mucous membrane, but in the internal organs, in the interstices of healthy 
tissues, and in the blood itself/’ Why, then, does not the blood decom¬ 
pose during life ? Simply because, if we understand it, it is a vital fluid 
full of living corpuscles, during whose life putrefactive changes are im¬ 
possible; but as soon as they lose their vitality putrefactive changes be¬ 
gin, and the first of these is the chemical formation of fibrin (Seepage 
193), which produces the resulting phenomenon of coagulation of the 
blood. This has already been alluded to, but as it is really the earliest, 
and to the practical embalmer one of the most important of the changes 
which occur in the decomposing body, it deserves some little attention at 
this point. 

COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD. 

Blood within the body coagulates after death, but more slowly than 
that drawn from the body during life, especially so in those diseases 
attended with lack of fibrin, as phthisis, etc. The cause of this coagula¬ 
tion (page 187), and the change in the reaction of the blood from alka¬ 
line to acid has already been mentioned (page 186). If, from any cause 
the fibrin contracts less rapidly than usual (as happens in inflammatory 
blood), or the red corpuscles sink more rapidly than usual, a white layer 
collects on the surface of the clot, consisting of fibrin only, or of a mix¬ 
ture of fibrin and white corpuscles. This constitutes what is called a 
buffy coat, or the inflammatory crust of blood. This buffy coat con¬ 
tracts more rapidly than the rest of the clot. Hence a cup-like depres- 


256 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


sion on the surface of the clot becomes apparent after a short time. 
Coagulation is hastened by a variety of circumstances, viz.: 

Women’s blood coagulates more rapidly than the blood of men, but 
the clot is less firm. Embryonic blood coagulates imperfectly. Arterial 
blood coagulates more rapidly than venous. 

A warmth of 100 to 120 degrees F. (37.8 to 48.9 degrees C.), pro¬ 
motes coagulation. A higher temperature than this retards it, whilst a 
temperature of 200 degrees F. (93.3 degrees C.), stops coagulation alto¬ 
gether, even after the blood has been cooled. Conversely a cold of 40 
degrees F. (4.5 degrees C.), entirely stops coagulation ; but coagulation 
will, under these circumstances, take place as well as ever after the nor¬ 
mal temperature of the blood has been restored. 

Motion retards coagulation but rest promotes it. 

The multiplication of points of contact promotes coagulation. Thus 
we whip blood with a bundle of twigs to coagulate the fibrin. Or again, 
the blood coagulates more rapidty in the rough cavities of the heart than 
in the smooth veins and arteries. Conversely coagulation is retarded by 
a variety of circumstances, some of which have already been mentioned, 
among which are : 

(a). Cold, which, according to some experimenters, if sufficient, 
entirely prevents. 

(5) The addition of soluble matter to the blood. —Many saline sub¬ 
stances, and more especially sulphate of soda and common salt, the alka¬ 
line hydrates, carbonates, and acetates dissolved in the blood insufficient 
quantity, prevent its coagulation ; but coagulation sets in when water is 
added, so as to dilute the saline solution. The same is true of dilute 
acids, potassic and calcic nitrates, and ammonia chloride. 

(i c) Contact with living tissue retards coagulation, whilst contact 
with dead or foreign tissue favors it. Thus we pass a thread through an 
aneurism to form a nucleus for coagulation and to assist the cure. Blood 
drawn into a basin begins to coagulate where it touches the sides of the 
basin and a wire acts like a thread in an aneurism. 

(d) Large dilution with water retards, if the quantity used is greater 
than twice the bulk of the blood. 

(e) Exclusion of air retards, and certain gases apparently prevent 
entirely. 

Coagulation is influenced by the mode of death. Thus in death 
by asphyxia, where the blood is imperfectly aerated, coagulation is re¬ 
tarded. According to Hunter, the same result occurs in death from 
lightning, blows on the stomach, over-exertion, fits of anger. 

If space allowed, it might be of interest to discuss the further putre¬ 
factive changes that take place in the blood and each of the fluids and 
.solids of the body;' but we have already so fully discussed them that it will 


INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS. 


!57 


not be profitable to do more than to give in general the results of animal 
putrefaction, noticing only such chemical compounds as have not 
previously been described. The final products of all the tissues of the 
body are the same, viz.: inorganic salts and gases, but this change, 
as we have already noted, does not take place with uniform rapidity, 
for all parts of the body are not decomposed at the same time. The 
bones are less readily acted upon than the integument and the 
tegumentary substances and membranes are more slowly destroyed 
than the muscles, and the muscles more slowly than the nerves, 
while the pigments are the most persistent of all. All of these, as 
has long been known, when left in contact with air undergo pro¬ 
gressive and complex transformations, known under the name of putre¬ 
faction, or slow combustion (eremacausis), whose effect is to transform 
them into principles more and more simple by means of decomposition 
and oxidation; so that, in the end, the carbon is restored to the air in 
the form of carbon dioxide, the hydrogen under the form of water, the 
nitrogen either as free nitrogen or ammonia. These gases have all been 


described on page 136, so that what now remains for description are 
Intermediate products, or those that are formed in the transition from 
living organized tissue to its ultimate products of gas and inorganic salts. 
These decomposition products, as may be seen by the following table, are 
numerous and of the most varied chemical combinations. Ralfe, in his 
Pathological Chemistry divides these compounds into two groups, viz.: (1) 
the non-nitrogenous organic acids arising from the oxidation of fats, 
sugars and other carbo-hydrates and, indirectly, from albuminoids, and 
(2) nitrogenous bases obtained together with the intermediate products 
already mentioned by the oxidation of albuminoid substances. “This 
oxidation is rarely finished in one effort, but several intermediate prod¬ 
ucts are usually necessary before the final products are reached.” This 
can be most conveniently shown by the following table which is enlarged 
from the one given by Ralfe. 





17 


258 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


INTERMEDIATE AND FINAL PRODUCTS ARISING FROM THE DECOMPOSI 
TION OF CARBO-HYDRATES AND ALBUMINOIDS. 


SOURCE. 

Sugars, fats, and other 


carbo-hydrates which 
form non-nitrogenous 
acids, etc. 

ft tt 

a tt 

tt tt 

tt tt 

<t tt 

tt tt 

<t ft 

tt tt 

tt tt 

tt a 

tt tt 


a tt 

II. 

Albuminoid compounds 
breaking up into nitro¬ 
genous bases and non- 
nitrogenous acids previ¬ 
ously mentioned. 


K ft 

tt tt 


INTERMEDIATE. 

Lactic acid. 

(C 3 H 6 0 3 ) 

Oxalic acid. 

(C 2 H<A) 

Succinic acid. 

(C 4 H 6 0 4 ) 

Formic acid. 

(CH 2 0 2 ) 

Acetic acid. 
(C 2 H 4 0 2 ) 
Propionic acid. 

(C 3 H 6 0 2 ) 

Butyric acid. 

(C 4 H 8 0 2 ) 
Valerianic acid. 
(C 5 H 10 O 2 ) 

Caproic acid. 
(C6H12O2) 
Pelargonic acid. 
(C9 Hi«0 2 ) 

Capric acid. 
(Ci 0 H 20 O 2 ) 

Stearic acid. 
(CigH 3fi 0 2 ) 
Glycerine. 

iii 

(C 3 H 5 ) 30H 
Glucose. 

(C 6 H 12 0 6 ) 

Xanthin (C 5 H 4 N 4 0 2 ). 

(Page 208.) 

Cystine (C 3 H 7 NS0 2 ). 

(Page 208.) 
Amido-caproic acid. 
(C 6 H 13 N0 2 .) 

See Leucin. 

Oxyphenylamido- propion¬ 
ic acid. See Tyrosin. 
(C 9 H n N0 3 .) 

(Page 157.) 

Hippuric acid (C 9 H 9 N0 2 ). 
(Page 208.) 
Amido-acetic acid. 

(See Glococine.) 


FINAL PRODUCTS. 

Carbonic anhydride (C0 2 ). 
(Page 138.) 


Water (H 3 0). 
(Page 132.) 
Oxygen (O). 
(Page 111.) 


Hydrogen (H). 
(Page 110.) 


Ammonia soap. 
(Adipocere.) 


Ammonium Carbonate. 

(See page 143.) 
Ammonium Sulphide. 
(NHJ4S.) 
Water (H 2 0). 
(Page 132.) 

Ammonia (XII 3 ). 
(Page 215.) 


Carbonic dioxide. 
(Page 138.) 







PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITIONS 


259 


SOURCE. 

Albuminoid compounds 
breaking up into nitro¬ 
genous. bases and non- 
nitrogenous acids previ¬ 
ously mentioned. 

Also albuminoids contain¬ 
ing phosphorus, such as 
lecithin (C 42 H 83 NP0 3 ). 


<< it 

a it 

it it 

a ti 

a a 

a a 


INTERMEDIATE. 

Amido-propionic acid. 
Amido-butyric acid. 
Amido-aspartic acid. 
Amido-glutamic acid. 

Trimethylphenyl -ammoni¬ 
um hydroxide (Neurin 

c 5 H 13 NO). 

Glycero-pliosphoric acid 
(C 3 H 9 P0 6 ). 

(See page 182.) 

Urea (CN 2 H 4 0). 

(See page 206.) 

Uric acid (C 5 H 4 N 4 0 3 ). 

(See page 207.) 
Alloxan (C 4 H 2 N 2 0 4 ). 
Allantoin (C 4 H 6 N^0 3 ). 
Hypoxanthin (C 5 H 4 N 4 0) 
Leucomaines. 
Adenine. 


FINAL PRODUCTS. 

Ammonia. 
Carbon dioxide. 
Water. 


Phosphoretted Hydrogen. 
(PH 3 .) 

(See page 221.) 
Ammonia carbonate. 
(Page 143, etc.) 

a it 

a it 

it ti 

Water (H 2 0). 

Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S). 
(See page 139.) 


“ “ Ptomaines. 

N. B .—Substances in italic are those which impart disagreeable 
odors to putrefying bodies. 


I. DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS OF HYDRO-CARBONS. 

LACTIC ACID. 

Synonym: Oxypropionic acid. Formula , Specific gravity, {con¬ 

centrated solution), 1.215. Graphic symbol, PI — C — COOH — OH — CH Z . 

Origin: Free lactic acid is found in muscle plasma (page 171) giv¬ 
ing it its acid reaction and increasing with muscular exertion. It is also 
found associated with hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice. It is also 
one of the products of the fermentation of milk and other animal fluids. 

Properties : A colorless, extremely acid liquid, of syrupy consistency, 
which does not crystallize or become solid, but is obtained in solution. 

Chemism: Soluble in water, alcohol or ether. The acid discovered in 
muscular tissue, and designated by Liebig sarcolactic acid, has been 
shown to be a mixture of two acids belonging to the lactic group, but 
differing from the lactic acid of fermentation. By oxidation lactic acid 
forms acetic acid, formic acid and carbonic anhydride. 

Pathology: It is never found in healthy blood as its salts are there 
converted into carbonates, unless there is some such disease as dyspepsia 
or rickets. Its function in the body seems to be to aid in the solution of 
the salts of lime, and prevent their accumulation in the tissues, also to 
aid in oxidation and assist digestion. The acid reaction of blood 





260 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


observed after death is probably caused by the conversion of its sugar- 
glucose into lactic acid. 

OXALIC ACID. 

Formula C Z IL Z 0 4 , or graphically HO — CO — CO — 0H-\-2Aq. Mole¬ 
cular weight, 90. Bihasic acid forming neutral and acid or hinoxalates. 

Origin : Oxalic acid may be formed by the imperfect oxidation of 
many organic substances. It represents in the body an intermediate 
stage in the oxidation of more complex substances on their way to form 
carbonic anhydride and water: but as this change takes place rapidly in 
the healthy body, oxalates are never met with in the secretions of the body, 
unless the general tone of the system is impaired, or an excess of car¬ 
bonates have been taken into the body. 

Properties: Oxalic acid crystallizes in transparent prisms, which 
effloresce in the air, and which are very soluble in water and alcohol, 
and are very poisonous. (See Poisons). 

It fumes at 98 q ; at 170° to 180° it is partially sublimed, but the 
greater portion is decomposed into carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide* 
formic acid and water. It forms acid and orthoxalates in the system, the 
most important of which is the oxalate of calcium CaC % 0± which from 
its sparing solubility is not infrequently found as a sediment in urine. 

SUCCINIC ACID. 

Synonym: Ethene-dicarbonic acid. Formula, C z lfO\- Molecular 
weight, 93. 

Succinic acid was first obtained from heating amber in iron 
retorts ; it occurs in some lignites, and occasionally in animal and vegeta¬ 
ble substances. It has been found in the parenchymatous fluids of the 
spleen, and the fluids of hydrocele and hydatid cysts. It appears in 
connection with the oxidation of many fats and in certain morbid exuda¬ 
tions, and in fermenting fluids. 

It occurs in colorless, rhombic crystals, which melt at 180°. It has a 
hot, sharp taste, and is reduced to odorous vapor over hot charcoal. 
Cold water dissolves one-fifth of its weight of succinic acid. Being dis¬ 
tilled with sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide, it yields acetic acid. 
Not acted upon by nitric or hydrochloric acid. 

FORMIC ACID. 

Synonyms: Metliylic acid, Hydric formate. Formula, CIL Z 0 2 . Mole¬ 
cular weight, 50.98. Specific gravity, 1.23. 

As seen from its derivation (Latin formica, ant) this acid was first 
obtained from the bodies of red ants. It also occurs in the hairs and 
otlfer parts of certain caterpillars, and in stinging nettles. It is found 
in the blood, urine, bile, perspiration, and muscular fluid of man. 


ACIDS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


261 


A colorless liquid with a strong odor, resembling that of irritated 
ants. Its corrosive action resembles that of nitric acid; it is inflam¬ 
mable, and burns with a blue flame. Crystallizes in tabular forms at 0°, 
and boils at 100°, and is freely soluble in water. 

With sulphuric acid it is decomposed into water and carbonic oxide, 
It differs from other acids of its group in having a powerful reducing 
action upon metallic salts 

ACETIC ACID. 

Synonyms: Acetyl hydrate, Pyroligneous acid, Hydrogen acetate, 
Acidium aceticum, Ethylic acid, Spirits of vinegar. Formula , C 2 Il\().>. 
Molecular 'weight, 60. Specific gravity, 1.08. 

Acetic acid occurs in small quantities in animal fluids, and also in the 
juices of plants. It is formed by the fermentation of alcohol, wine, 
beer, or by the decomposition, through heat, of various substances, 
chiefly vegetable. 

A colorless, pungent liquid, very strong and corrosive, producing 
blisters upon the skin. At 17° it solidifies into a white crystalline mass, 
and boils at 119°. Its vapor burns with a pale, bluish flame. It mixes 
with water in all jiroportions, and the volume of the mixture is less than 
the sum of the volumes of the constituents. The acidity of ordinary 
vinegar is due to the presence of acetic acid formed by the oxidation of 
alcohol contained in the original liquid. (See antiseptics.) 

PROPIONIC ACID. 

Synonyms: Methacetic acid, Propylic acid. Formula, C 3 II 6 0 2 . 
Molecular weight, 78. Specific gravity, 0.996. 

Propionic acid is probably formed in the body as a product of oxida¬ 
tion of the fats and albuminoids; its presence, however, has not been 
demonstrated with certainty, although it has been said to exist in the 
perspiration, the contents of the stomach, in the vomit of cholera, and in 
fermented diabetic urine. It is formed during the decomposition of a 
great number of vegetable substances by the action of caustic potassa 
upon sugar, gum, etc., during the putrefaction of peas and beans; it is 
the acid of “ turned” wine. 

An oily, colorless liquid, which mixes with alcohol and water in all 
proportions, but is not completely soluble in the latter, forming oily 
drops. In odor and taste it resembles acetic acid. It can be solidified 
at low temperature, and boils at 140°. It forms monobasic salts called 
propionates which are soluble and crystallizable. 

BUTYRIC ACID. 

Synonyms: Ethacetic acid, Tetrylic acid, Diethacetic acid. Formula, 
= Cfifi CO( OH.) Molecular weight, 88. Specific gravity , 0.97 


262 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


f 


Butyric acid exists free and in “ethers.” It occurs in perspiration, 
milk, juices of spleen and other glands, in guano, fruit, yeast, etc. It 
is formed by the decomposition of organic substances, as by the action 
of alkalies upon butyrine, a substance contained in butter. A viscid 
liquid with the odor of rancid butter, very volatile, soluble in water and 
alcohol. It boils at 162°C. The acid is known in two conditions, both 
of which are colorless liquids yielding, when heated, acetic acid and car¬ 
bonic anhydride. 

VALERIC ACID. 


Synonyms: Valerianic acid, Delphinic acid, Pentylic acid. 

Formula, C 6 H 10 O 2 . Molecular ‘weight, 102 . Specific gravity, 0.97If 
Discovered originally in the oil of the porpoise, and subsequently in 
valerian root and angelica root. It is formed during fermentation of 
albuminoid substances, and occurs in the urine and feces in typhus, 
variola, and acute atrophy, and is also one of the products of the decom¬ 
position of leucin in the presence of putrid fibrin. 

Chemism: Valeric acid is an oily liquid, colorless, with penetrating 
odor and sharp taste. It solidifies at 16°, and boils at 173°. It is soluble 
in water, alcohol and ether. It dissolves phosphorus, camphor and 
resins, and forms metallic and ethereal salts called valerates, or valeri¬ 
anates. 

THE HIGHER FATTY ACIDS, 

As those are called which contain more than five atoms of carbon, are 
found in the annexed list. Those are all formed by the oxidation of 
fats, but only those which have a disagreeable odor and stearic acid are 
here noted, viz.: 


Caproic.... 
(Enantliylic 
Caprylic... 
Pelargonic. 
Capric. ... 

Laurie. 

Coccinic... 
Myristic.... 
Palmitic... 
Margaric... 

Stearic. 

Aracliidic.. 

Cerotic. 

Melissic.... 


c 6 h 13 o 2 

C 7 H 14 0 2 
Cg H 16 0 3 
C 9 H 18 O a 

c 10 h 20 o 2 

Cl sH24^2 
Ci 3 H 26 0 2 

c 14 h 28 o„ 

Ci 6H 32 0 2 

C 1 7 II 3 4 O 2 

Ci 8 H 36 0 2 
C 2 o H 40 O 2 

C 2 7 H 5 4 O 2 
C30H60C2 


these fatty acids, or those containing over five atoms of carbon, are 
chiefly of interest here from the vile odor of some of its members ; the 
more important of these are: Caproic acids, C 6 H 12 0 2 , and its isomers 
colorless, oily fluids with the odor of perspiration. (Enantliylic acid. 
















PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


263 

€ 7 H 14 0 2 , is a colorless, oily liquid with a vinous odor. Pelargonic acid, 
C 9 H 18 0 2 , is a colorless oil with the odor of fish geranium. Capric acid, 
C 1 oH 20 0 2 , is a crystalline solid with a goat-like odor. 

STEARIC ACID. 

Stearic acid , II0(C 18 H 35 0). If tristearine be boiled with sodic hy¬ 
drate and the solution be diluted with ten times its volume of water, or 
if ordinary soda soap be dissolved in hot water and then largely diluted 
with cold water, a precipitate will fall which will consist of the acid 
stearate of soda, mixed with the acid palmitate of soda, if soap has been 
used. This precipitate is treated with boiling alcohol and the solution 
decanted; when the solution cools the acid stearate is again deposited and 
should be washed with cold alcohol and then treated with dilute 
hydrocholoric acid. Chloride of sodium is formed and the stearic acid set 
free; the former in solution is decanted and the latter is redissolved in 
boiling alcohol from which it crystallizes on cooling. 

Stearic acid forms in thin plates, some of which are rectangular while 
others are oval. They are insoluble in water and cold alcohol; soluble in 
hot alcohol, ether, chloroform and benzol. Stearic acid has already been 
alluded to in connection with stearin (page 163) with which it exists 
in connection with glycerine, or more exactly with glyceryl . (C 3 H 5 ) a 

triatomie ... radical which unites with hydroxyl (OH) to form gly¬ 

cerine (C 3 H 5 )(OH) 3 . 

GLYCERINE. 

. . (OH 

Synonym : Propenyl alcohol. Formula, C 3 II 8 0 3 or (C 3 H 5 ) ■{ OH 

( OH 

Specific gravity, 1.27. 

Origin: Glycerine occurs free in palm oil, is produced in small 
quantities in alcoholic fermentation, and is widely disseminated in ani¬ 
mal fats, being in combination with acids and forming neutral substances. 
It is produced as a by-product in the manufacture of soap and candles. 

Properties: A syrupy, sweet, neutral, colorless liquid, soluble in 
water and alcohol, unalterable from exposure to air, and therefore valu¬ 
able for preserving animal and vegetable substances. A useful solvent 
for many substances. When quite pure, and subjected to cold, it may 
form colorless crystals, which melt at 15.60 C. (See Antiseptics.) 

Subjected to high temperature it decomposes, yielding acrolein 

With nitro-sulphuric acid, it forms the oily, explosive compound, 
u it ro-glycerine. 

GLUCOSE. 

Synonyms: Grape-sugar , dextrose, liver-sugar, diabetic sugar, dextro- 
glucose, granular sugar. Formula : C 6 H l2 0 C) . Specific gravity, lfi. 


264 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


Origin: This substance occurs both in the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms. It is found in minute quantities in the urine in health, and 
in diabetes in large proportion, rising as high as 5.8 parts per thousand. 
It is introduced into the system by vegetable food, and also produced by 
the liver at the expense of glycogen, a formation which continues for 
some time after death. (Page 175.) It is also largely formed from starch 
by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid and neutralizing with chalk. 

Properties: Glucose is much less sweet than cane-sugar, as also less 
soluble. It crystallizes with difficulty from solution in white, non-sparkling 
spheroidal masses. Its sweetening power is about one-half that of cane- 
sugar. In solution, glucose turns the plane of polarization of a ray of 
light to the right (hence the name dextrose in contradistinction to 
Icevulose which rotates a ray of polarized light to the left). At 170° it 
gives off water and is converted into glucosan. At higher temperatures 
glucose blackens and suffers complete decomposition. It is rapidly oxi¬ 
dized, and when boiled with alkaline solutions of silver and copper salts 
quickly reduces them. 


II. NITROGENOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS. 

XANTHIN— C 86 H 4 N 4 0 4 , 

already mentioned as occasionally found in urinary calculi, (page 208) 
ought to be here further alluded to since it is one of the more frequent 
products of the decomposition£>f the nitrogenous compounds of the body 
and hence may be obtained from the liver, spleen, thymus gland, muscle 
and blood. The explanation of its rarity as a constituent of the urine is 
found in the fact that in a healthy body xanthin is immediately oxidized 
and appears as a higher derivative from uric acid. For its properties, see 
page 208. 

cystin —C 2 H 7 NS0 2 

has also been described previously in connection with the urine, where it 
occasionally is met with, either as a calculus or as sediment. According 
to Bence Jones, cystin, like xanthin, is being continually formed during 
life, but is immediately transformed in health into sulphuric acid, urea 
and carbonic anhydride. Cystin is a greenish-yellow, waxy substance, 
without odor, taste or reaction upon vegetable colors, and is insoluble in 
water or alcohol, but dissolved by the mineral and oxalic acids. Melts 
easily and burns with a bluish-green flame. 

leucin— C 6 II 13 N0 2 , 

chemically, is an amidocaproic acid, produced in the body by the de¬ 
composition of albuminoid matters. 



DECOMPOSITION OF ALBUMINOIDS 


265 


Properties: When properly isolated, leuoin appears in pearly, snow- 
white plates, which are tasteless, odorless and soluble in water, hut insol¬ 
uble in cold alcohol and ether. Its solutions are neutral and its com¬ 
binations with acids are crystallizable and soluble in water. 

Cliemism: In the presence of putrefied fibrin, leucin breaks up into 
ammonia, valerianic acid, etc. Associated with tyrosin it may be ob¬ 
tained from all the glandular organs and their secretions, being especially 
abundant in lung and liver tissue (See page 208). 

TYROSIN— C 9 H 16 A t 0 3 

has already been described on page 157. It is an odorless substance, 
except when burned, and soluble in weak ammoniacal fluids. Chemi¬ 
cally it is an “ oxyphenyl amido-propionic acid ” and is usually associated 
with leucin in the glandular organs and various secretions. 

OTHER AMIDO ACIDS. 

Thefe are several other amido acids of the fatty series, viz.: amido- 
oenanthylic, amido-butyric and amido-acetic, the last usually known as 
glycicoll , C 2 H 5 N0 2 , is one of the decomposition products of gelatinous 
tissues and may be isolated in the form of large, colorless, transparent 
crystals, which have a distinctly sweet taste, and may be dissolved in 
water and dilute spirits. Amido-aspartic and amido-glutamic acids are 
also known, but are not important. The same might also be said of 
the other amines, which ought to be alluded to in passing. 

ETHYLAMINE. 

Synonyms: Amido-ethane, Ethylia. Formula: Specific 

gravity , 0.6964. 

Properties: An alkaloid resembling ammonia in many of its proper¬ 
ties. A very mobile liquid, colorless, boiling at 18.7°, with the penetra¬ 
ting odor of ammonia, and giving off an inflammable vapor which burns 
with a yellowish flame ; soluble in water, alcohol or ether ; precipitates 
metallic salts, and produces a blue precipitate with copper salts. With 
hydrochloric acid it gives off white fumes. 

PROPYLAMINE. 

Formula, Specific gravity, 0.7283. 

Propylamine is found in nature in the flowers of the white-thorn and 
in the fruit of mountain ash ; herring brine contains it in considerable 
quantity, combined with an acid, from which it may be separated by dis¬ 
tillation with potash. 

Properties: A colorless, transparent liquid, possessed of a strong 
odor like that of ammonia ; it is soluble in water, and this solution 


266 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


shows a strong alkaline reaction, even when much attenuated. Propy¬ 
lamine boils at 50° ; it neutralizes many acids and forms crystallizable 
salts. Like ammonia it produces white fumes in the presence of hydro¬ 
chloric acid. 

AM YLAMINE. 

Synonym: lsopentylamine. Formula, C b H xi N. Molecular to eight. 
87. Specific gravity, 0.7508. 

A colorless liquid with strong ammoniacal odor, alkaline in reaction, 
boiling at 95°. 

TREMETHYLAMINE— C 3 H 9 N. 

Produced by distilling codeine or narcotine with potash ; also con¬ 
tained in herring brine, the strong odor of which is due to its presence. 
It is a liquid easily soluble in water, and boiling at 98°. Has the odor 
of ammonia and fish brine. 

Here also belongs chemically 

NEURIN— C 5 H 13 NO, 

a trimethylvinyl ammonium hydroxide which is one of the decomposition 
products of lecithin (See page 182). 

Properties : It is a very deliquescent, difficultly crystallizable base, 
strongly basic, absorbing C0 2 from the atmosphere, forms crystalizable 
salts with the acids and platinic chloride. 

According to Palfe, under the head of ammonia, decomposition com¬ 
pounds ought to be placed creatin C 4 H 9 jNT 3 0 2 and creatinin C 4 H 7 N 3 0, but 
they are by many considered normal constituents of muscular tissue, and 
as such fully described on pages 172-173. Of decomposition products 
proper, sarcosine, C s H 7 N0 2 has also been previously considered (page 
174), as well as urea (page 206) hippuric (208) and uric acids (207). A 
few of their intermediate products are given in the table on page 270, 
and ought to be described as briefly as possible in passing. The more 
important are : . 

Alloxan, C 4 N 2 H 2 0 4 , which may be prepared by the action of strong 
nitric acid on uric acid ; white crystals ; very soluble in water ; crystals 
become anhydrous at 150 C.; solution acid, and stains the skin red ; de¬ 
composed by both oxidizing and reducing agents. Forms a deep blue 
compound when acted on with an alkali and ferrous salt. 

Properties: Colorless crystals. Soluble with difficulty in cold water, 
more soluble in hot. Becomes anhydrous at 150 C. Solution acid, con¬ 
verted by oxidizing agents into alloxan. Decomposed by the prolonged 
action of H 2 S into dialuric acid. 

Allantoin: C 4 N 4 H 6 0 3 . Properties: Transparent colorless crystals; 
soluble in 160 parts of cold water. Decomposed by boiling with min¬ 
eral acids and caustic alkalies. (See page 209.) 


DECOMPOSITION OF ALBUMINOIDS. 


207 


But still more important is the recent discovery of the compound 
ammonias, or animal alkaloids to which it has been given the names of 

PTOMAINES AND LEUCOMAINES. 

(t In the course of putrefaction in animal tissue, a certain number of 
poisonous alkaloids are called into existence, and these alkaloids of pu¬ 
trefaction vary according to the character of the medium in which they 
develop, also to the period when bacteridian fermentation begins. In 
the excretion of living animals, there are substances of the character of 
ptomaines. The alkaloids of urine detected by Liebricht and Pouchet, 
ought to be ranked with alkaloids of putrefaction. There are similar 
ptomaines in saliva and £nake venom, which M. Gauthier names leuco- 
maines, in order to distinguish them from those alkaloids that form in 
dead bodies which are called ptomaines. In 1881 M. Gauthier published 
a memoir in which lie dwelt on the importance of leucomaines in con¬ 
nection with the genesis of disease, when renal elimination, and that of 
the skin, and intestinal mucous membrane are insufficient. Later on, 
M. Gauthier studied the muscular juice of large animals, and extracted 
live new, definite, crystallized alkaloids acting with more or less energy 
on the nerve centers, causing sleep, fatigue, and in some instances vom¬ 
iting and action of the bowels, in a less degree than ptomaines. These 
substances are called into existence just as are carbolic acid and urea. 
The transformation of the tissues of the higher order of animals is, in a 
large proportion, of the anaerobic order. M. Gauthier observes that this 
proposition may appear paradoxical, but he believes that he will demon¬ 
strate it both experimentally and theoretically. Four-fifths of the pro¬ 
ducts of animal combustion are positive aerobic formations, comparable 
to the oxidation of alcohol under the influence of animal life. When we 
think heat is evolved in the brain, and the material result of cerebral 
activity is neurin, an alkaloid improper to normal life. (See page 183.) 
Muscular movement causes heat, the material result being creatinin and 
other alkaloids improper to normal life. In fine, all the organs ‘ which 
work and which, by working undergo partial destruction, make, besides 
these alkaloids, extractive matters. Life, then, is also, only a partial and 
prolonged suicide ; and if is easily seen how precarious is the state called 
“ health," and how, even by the action of our own organs, disease may 
supervene ; all that is necessary is the accumulation in our bodies of 
“ cadaverized ” materials. Such accumulation pre-supposes insufficient 
elimination, and this may take place in two very different conditions of 
life. Sometimes the alkaloids and extractive materials arc produced in 
excess, the emunctories remain normal, but are momentarily insufficient 
for carrying off these substances as fast as they are produced. Or there 
may be a normal production of these substances,,but the emunctories are 


208 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


morbidly altered or suppressed for the time being.” Journal American 
Medical Association, No. 10, Pages 268 — 269. 

The whole subject of ptomaines, leucomaines, and microbes has been 
carefully studied by Professor Peter, who says in substance that in the 
consideration of these bodies we naturally turn to their chemical side. 
Here clinical experience steps in and shows that the difference in their 
poisonous properties corresponds to a difference in heat; poisoning by 
the extractive matters produces increase in temperature, while intoxica¬ 
tion by the animal alkaloids produces decrease in temperature ; and 
one may see in the same organism an association or alternance of 
the different poisons. But what is very interesting and of no little 
importance, says M. Peter, is that the discoveries of Gauthier really 
explain the formation of the most poisonous alkaloids and the still more 
poisonous extractive matters. “They show that anto-infection, spon¬ 
taneous infection of the living organism, of the organism by the alkaloids 
and extractive matters, which it produces in itself because it lives, is 
merely a question of quantity ; in other words, the living organism may 
poison itself simply by the accumulation within itself of these substances 
made in itself.” 

According to the same author a fifth part of the combustion of 
the animal economy takes place at the expense of the tissues with¬ 
out oxygen playing any part in the process; in other words, that 
portion of the tissues, represented in the fifth part of combustion, 
is destroyed by the anaerobic or putrid ferments. Most of these toxic 
alkaloids are easily oxidized; they enter into combination and disappear, 
or do so in part. In a normal condition; a very small proportion of 
muscular leucomaine is found in urine. But if the air that reaches the 
blood be diminished in quantity, or the proportion of haemoglobin be 
diminished, as is the case in chloris or anaemia, or if substances be intro¬ 
duced into the blood which prevent the process of blood-making, sub¬ 
stances of the character of leucomaines or ptomaines accumulate in the 
blood. M. Gauthier further states, that with these toxic alkaloids, there 
exist nitrogenous substances, not alkaloids, which are still more poison¬ 
ous. The septic poison of Panum contains hardly any alkaloid. In a 
recent discussion at the Paris Academy of Medicine, on microbes, 
ptomaines, and leucomaines, M. Gauthier spoke in the following terms: 
“Evidently the microbean theory cannot explain all the phenomena that 
are difficult to interpret. As medical science has not reaped all the 
advantages it appears reasonable to expect, the theory of animal alkaloids 
will probably clear up many questions which have hitherto remained ob¬ 
scure.” The microbe theory and M. Gauthier's concerning animal alka¬ 
loids are not rival theories, on the contrary, one may be considered as the 
complement of the other. The whole subject of ptomaines needs care- 


PTOMAINES. 


209 


ful and. fuller study: for as yet these products have not been properly 
classified chemically, nor satisfactorily studied. It may require many 
years to come to a full knowledge on these subjects; but about all the 
definite conclusions yet arrived at are these: 

The Ptomaines or Ptoamines found in exhumed corpses are volatile, 
toxic alkaloids requiring but small quantities to destroy animal life for 
they are as virulent as nicotine, or prussic acid and hence the air of old 
cemeteries is extremely poisonous although it may be destitute of mi¬ 
crobes. Some on the contrary are inactive, and others actually counter¬ 
act the effect of otherwise poisonous substances. A few have been iso¬ 
lated, as from the abdominal fluid in suppurative peritonitis, which has 
long been known to be violently poisonous, and in which Spica recently 
has discovered an oily, volatile ptoainine allied to conine in appearance 
and odor, in physiological action to curarine. There is also said to be a 
typhus fever ptoamine. 

As a type of the leucomaines we may instance adenine , recently dis¬ 
covered by Kossel, in th6 pancreas and spleen. It exists in many animal 
tissues, and can be extracted from them by proper reagents. Further, 
it appears that it is derived in the cell from the nuclein—a body already 
known—since, under the influence of water and heat the nuclein pro¬ 
duces adenine, phosphoric acid, and albumen. Adenine itself can be 
wholly transformed into hypoxanthin or sarcine, thus showing its near 
relation to the bodies we vaguely call nitrogenous metabolites. Adenine 
has been isolated by M. Morelle from the spleen. This organ was 
chosen by the advice of Prof. Gauthier, because of its undoubted purifying 
action on the blood, being the place where alkaloidal and similar noxious 
products of metabolism are retained. The physiological properties of 
this leucomaine were tested, and it was found to be a paralysomotor, 
with a powerful action on the medulla oblongata. A small quantity 
injected under the skin of a guinea-pig appeared at first to produce 
nothing abnormal, with the exception of immobility, a refusal of food, 
and some swelling near the point of injection for the first forty hours; 
but by degrees the depression and suffocation increased, and the animal 
died asphyxiated. At the necropsy were found congestion of the lungs 
with sub-pleural ecchymosis, general oedematous infiltration of the liver, 
spleen, and kidneys, and a certain hardness of the ventricles, appearing 
to indicate the arrest of the heart in systole. 

Further consideration of these substances must be reserved for the 
section on antiseptics, where their neutralization properly belongs. The 
present section already exceeds the limits originally assigned it and must 
be brought as speedily as possible to a close, although there still remain 
other intermediate products of decomposition not yet described. Many 
of these arise from the putrefaction of unimportant constituents of the 


270 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


body as for instance the bile acids, urinary sediments, etc.; and the 
whole subject may be conveniently closed by the use of the accompany¬ 
ing table, which shows at a glance the products ordinarily resulting from 
the decomposition of all the more important organic proximate prin¬ 
ciples of the body. The small numbers in brackets indicate the pages 
on which a fuller description of these substances can be found and the 
use of Italic type denotes that the substance so printed is disagreeable in 
odor, or dangerous in its properties. 

TABLE OF DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS. 


NAME. 

Benzoic acid (208). 
Clioieic acid (201). 

Glycocliolic acid (201) 

Hippuric acid (208). 

Lactic acid (199). 

Palmitic acid (164). 

Paralactic acid (176). 
Syntonin (172). 

Tyrosin (157). 

Urea (206). 

Xanthin (201). 
Glycero-pliosphoric acid. 
Peptone (181). 

Amyloid. 

Lecithin (182). 


SOURCE. 

Urine after fruits, etc. 

Bile of man and carnivora. 

Bile and blood. 

Urine herbivorous animals 
and man. 

Muscular plasma and gas¬ 
tric juice. 

Natural fats. 


Muscular flesh. 
Contractile tissues. 


Nails, flesh, fibrin, hair. 


Urine. 


Urinary calculus, pancreas, 
liver, etc. 

From lecithin from brain, 
etc. 

Albuminoids by gastric 
fluid. 

Brain, membrane; walls 
of blood vessels. 

Spermatic fluid, blood, 
brain, etc. 


DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS. 

Hippuric acid (C 9 H 9 N0 3 ). 

Cholic acid (C 24 H 40 O 5 ), 
taurin (C 2 H 7 N0 3 S). 

Cliolinic acid, glycicoll 
and cholaic acids. 

Glycicoll (C 2 H 5 N0 2 ), and. 
benzoic acid (C 7 H 6 0 2 ). 

Dilactic acid (C c H 10 O 5 ). 
Lactide (C 3 H 4 0 2 ). Bu¬ 
tyric acid (C 4 H 8 0 2 ). 

Acetic acid (C 2 H 4 0 2 ), bu¬ 
tyric acid (C 4 II 8 0o), and 
other acids of the fatty 
and amido-fatty acid 
series. 

Dilactic acid (C e H 10 O r> ), 
b}^ heat. 

Leucin and tyrosin and 
other amido-fatty acids, 
ammonia , carbonic an¬ 
hydride and dextrin¬ 
like body. 

Carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and 
water and ammonia 
(NH 3 ). 

By hydration to C0 2 and 
ammonium carbonate 
Am 2 C0 3 . 

Hypoxanthin, guanine. 

Glycerin (C 3 H 8 0 3 ); phos¬ 
phoric acid (P0 4 H 3 ). 

See albumen. 

With HC1, syntonin. 
(C 3 II 7 N0 2 .) 

Cholin (C 5 II 15 NO s ); gly- 

cophosphoric acid 
(C 3 H 9 P0 8 ). 







TABLE OE DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS. 


271 


NAME. 

Glucose (166). 

I nosite (174). 

Keratin (156). 

('reatin (172). 

Creatinin (173). 

Leucin (157). 

Nuclein (269). 

Sodic glycocholate (200). 

Sodic taurocliolate (200). 

Olein (164). 

Palmatin (164). 
Pancreatin (200). 

Pepsin (199). 

Stearin (164). 

Paraglobulin (170). 

Cerebrin (182). 

Chondrogen (165). 

Dyslysin (203). 

Elasticin (162). 

Fibrin (180) 


Globulin (179). 
Glycogen (175). 

Haemoglobin (188) 

Taurocholie acid (201). 


SOURCE. 

Liver, bile, heart, etc. 

Liquid of muscular tissue, 
etc. 

Nails and skin. 

Muscular tissue. 

Creatin. 

Nails, internal organs. 

Spleen and cell tissue. 
Bile. 

Bile. 

Fats of the body. 

i i a 

Pancreatic juice. 

Gastric juice. 

Fats. 


Blood, serum. 

Brain tissue. 
Cartilage. 

Bile. 

Connective tissue. 

“ “ and 

muscles. 


Crystalline lens. 

Liver, blood corpuscles, 

Blood corpuscles., 

Bile of man and carni¬ 
vora. 


DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS. 

j Lactic acid (O 3 II 6 O 3 ). 

( Butyric acid (CHIgCL). 
Lactic acid (C 3 H 6 0 3 ); bu¬ 
tyric acid (CiIIkO 2 ). 
TyrosiiHCgHieNOs). Leu¬ 
cin C 0 H, 3 NO 2 ). 

Sarcosin (C3ILNO2); Cre¬ 
atinin CHLNsO), ammo¬ 
nia. 

Sarcosin (C 3 H 7 NO 2 ), etc. 
Amylamine (C 5 H 11 NH 21 ), 
and carbon anh} r dride 

(CO& 

Adenine. (See Leuco- 
maines.) 

Cholinic acid, glycicoll 
and cholaic acid. 
Taurin. (C2H7NSO3), and 
cholaic acid. 

Glycerine (C 3 H 5 )(OH) 3 , and 
fatty acids. 

a a 

See albuminoid ferments. 

< c << 

Glycerine and fatty acids, 
or oxalic acid and car¬ 
bonic dioxide (OC 2 .) 

See albumen. See tibrine. 

Saccharine substance and 
other products. 

With II 2 SO 4 yields leucin 
(C 6 H 13 N 0 2 ). 

Excretin and stereorin.(?) 
Leucin and Glycicoll 
(C 2 H 5 N02),and tyrosin 
>- (by hydration) amido- 
fatty acids, IBS and 
CO 2 

See albumen. 

Glucose (C 6 IIi 20 6 ), etc., or 
oxalic acid (C 2 H 2 O 4 ) and 
water (H 2 0). 

Reduced hemoglobin, 
hematin, metlisemoglo- 
bin, etc. 

Cholic acid (C24H40O5) and 
Taurin (C2H7NO3S). 


/ 








272 


BACTERIA AND PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. 


NAME. 


SOURCE. 


DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS. 


Uric acid (207). 


Albumen (178). 


Allantoin (209). 


Urine. 


Blood serum and urine. 


Urine. 


Hydrocyanic acid (HCN). 
Oxalic acid (H 2 C 2 O 4 ). 
Cyanic acid (CNOH), 
Urea (CH 4 N 2 O), etc. 
Leucin, tyrosin, ammo¬ 
nia , ammonia sulphide, 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, 
amido-fatty and as¬ 
partic and glutamic acids 
Oxalic acid C 2 H 2 O 4 . and 
urea, CHN 2 0. 


Alloxantin (209). 
Alloxan (209). 


Biliprasin (201). 

Bilihumin (201). 
Bilirubin (201). 
Bilifuscin (201). 
Biliverdin (201). - 
Casein (180). 


Gluten and Pseudo Gluten. 

Succinic acid (202). 

Indican (102). 

Mucin (160). 

Ossein (167). 


Myosin (172). 


Indol(203). 


Uric acid. 

Urine in heart disease. 


% 

Gall-stones and icteric 
urine. 

Bile and biliary calculi, 

< ( 

iC 
i i 

Milk. 


Cartilage and bone. 
Fluids of spleen, etc. 
Urine. 

Mucus, saliva, etc. 
Bony tissues. 


Muscle plasma. 

Feces. 


Alloxan (See below). 

Parabanic acid (C 3 H 2 N 2 O 3 ), 
alloxatin (See above and 
C0 2 , oxalic acid H 2 C 2 
O4, urea CH 4 N 2 0, and 
carbonic acid. 

Pigments are among the 
most stable of the con¬ 
stituents of the body 
(Richardson). 

Biliprasin (See above). 

Carbon monoxide (CO) 
and other products, with 
IvOH gives valeric acid 
(C5H10O2) and butyric 
acid (C 4 H 8 O 2 ). 

See chondrogen and os¬ 
sein . 

Acetic acid (C 2 H 4 0 2 ), val¬ 
erianic acid (C 5 Hio 0 2 ). 

Glycicoll (C 2 H5N0 2 ); ben¬ 
zoic acid (C 7 II 6 0 2 ). 

See bacterial fermentation, 

Gelatin, collagen, glyci¬ 
coll, etc. Ammonia. 
(NH 3 ), Leucin (C 6 H 13 ; 
NO,). 

Formic acid (CH 2 O 2 ); 
acetic acid, (C 2 H60 8 ); 
butyric acid, (C 4 H 8 0 2 ). 

Excretin, (C7sHi560 2 S); dis- 
lysin (C 24 H 156 03 ). 


This concludes our review of the decomposition products of the prox¬ 
imate principles of the human body. The preceding list does not 
include all those that have been given b} 7 " other writers, nor indeed all 









/ 




Plate ¥ 







Copyr/ffh/- /OSS. 


—If. (L. 


c.h.m. — 


-m.v. 
-• u.n 



mm$r 

mm&m • 






fcanra 


• .’ ■ % 


wm\ 

-mm? 




K y: %WmM 


lill: 


■ / ■ 













EXPLANATION" OF PLATE V. 


273 

of those previously mentioned in this book, but those only whose exist¬ 
ence is well proven, and concerning whose decomposition something 
definite is known. The problem presented to the embalmer, is then, 
what means may be employed to prevent these decompositions, or 
if they have already occurred how they may at once be arrested 
and the disagreeable compounds neutralized. It is not the sim¬ 
ple problem that the perambulating teacher of embalming would 
have you believe, but one of the most complex questions of ap¬ 
plied chemistry; for each of its eighty odd factors needs separate and 
especial study, and the neglect of any of these may bring failure and 
disappointment for the rest. With all the aids of modern chemistry it 
is fighting against nature, and the wonder is not that embalmers so 
often fail, but that they have attained the success that as a rule they 
achieve when they intelligently adapt their means to the desired ends. 
How this may be best done will be discussed in the following section, 
which will be devoted to modern embalming and its methods. 


Plate 

Figure II. illustrates line of incision for injection by means of the 
brachial artery. This can be most conveniently opened in the line run¬ 
ning from the central point of the arm-pit (a) to the central point in 
front of the elbow joint (b). 

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE I. 


b, b. 
c. b. rn. 
bi. 
a. 


b. v. 
m. v. 
h. v. 
i. j. a. 
u. n. 


Brachial artery. 

Ooraco-brachiaPs muscle. 

Edge of biceps pulled back by hook to show vessels. 
Aponeurosis of biceps muscle which lies between the brachial 
artery and medium basilic vein. 

Basilic vein. 

Median nerve inclosed in common sheath with brachial artery. 
Humeral vein. 

Inferior profunda artery. 

Ulnar nerve. 


18 







SECTION V. 


MODERN embalming and its methods. 




































I 

■ 





































































I 















































. 
















SECTION V. 


Modern Embalming and Its Methods. 



HREE widely different methods for the preservation of the dead 


have been attempted in modern times. The first of these is the 
employment of cold, usually in the form of ice; for it is well known 
that with a low enough temperature putrefaction is impossible (page 231), 
but the ice box is cumbersome, expensive, and in warm weather, when 
most needed, is unsatisfactory in its results. 

The second method attempted is that of hermetically sealing from 
the air the body which it is desired to preserve. If done thoroughly, 
that is, in calcined air, immediately after death, a corpse may be kept 
for a long time without decomposition; but this requires complicated 
and expensive apparatus and must be done before bacterial fermentation 
sets in, for we have learned elsewhere that where this once begins it can 
be carried on without the aid of the air. 

The third, which is preeminently the modern method, is to apply to 
all parts of the body such liquids or gases as shall prevent putrefaction, 
and neutralize its disagreeable products if already formed. This means, 
according to the modern theories of putrefaction, that this fluid or gas 
shall be antiseptic; that is, of such a nature as shall destroy bacterial 
germs, and, furthermore, disinfect, or be able to neutralize the products 
of putrefaction. Whatever agent is used must be able to penetrate all 
parts of the body; for if any portion of the body that has been accessible 
to the atmosphere is not reached by the germ-destroying substance, that 
part will form a center for germ development, with all the characteris¬ 
tic effects of putrefaction permeating the tissues from this point and 
rapidly spreading and destroying the body. Maceration, saturation with 
gas and arterial injections have all been employed in embalming; but 
up to the present time the first two have been so inefficient as compared 
with the third, that modern embalming now relies exclusively upon 
arterial injections to accomplish its results. The purpose of the present 
section, then, is not to debate whether it is desirable to employ arterial 
* injections, but to indicate how these may be most satisfactorily used; leav¬ 
ing to each the choice of his own preservative fluid, after learning what 

277 



278 MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 

has been employed elsewhere with good success. Further than this, the 
scientific embalmer ought to be able, not only to use skillfully the 
fluids prepared by others, but to manufacture his own, and modify them 
according to the exigencies of the case; for no possible combination of 
antiseptics can meet equally well the requirements of every case that 
falls into his hands, for no two of these will ever be found exactly alike. 
Each case ought to be studied by itself and the preservative used adopted 
in accordance to the needs of the case, for this and nothing less con¬ 
stitutes scientific embalming. 

Having fully studied the case, learned the cause of death and the 
present condition of the body, the embalmer may then prepare his fluid; 
and having, as we suppose, done so we shall endeavor in the present 
section to give the plainest possible directions for its best use, and the 
best methods for avoiding the annoying failures that otherwise will be 
sure to occur. 


POINTS POR INJECTION. 

Since the arteries are open tubes, a fluid injected into any one of 
them will reach every part of the body. We find, however, that we can 
best use for arterial injection one of three arteries : the femoral in the 
thigh, the brachial in the arm, or the carotid in the neck. Let us first 
consider the femoral, as it comes out of the abdomen to the thigh in 
front, midway between the center of the body and the prominent bony pro¬ 
jection of the flank. A line drawn from that point to the most prominent 
bony point of the inner side of the knee will lie over the course of the artery , 
where w r e wish to expose it. We find the artery, for its first three inches, 
covered only by skin and varying amounts of fat. A vein lies near it, to 
the inner side and slightly under it. We find a nerve on the outer side 
of the artery, slightly separated from it. Now, in cutting for this artery, 
it is important that one cut as near as possible to the abdomen, because 
the artery is there nearest the skin, and is larger there than at any point 
below. Some books say to inject below the point given, so that one may 
inject a vessel which is given olf from the femoral about one and one-half 
inches below the abdomen, running downward toward the leg. The leg 
will receive enough fluid, if you inject as stated, by means of the connec¬ 
tions of the vessels below and above. 

Having cut for the artery, how shall we distinguish it from the vein 
and nerve ? The artery lies between the vein and nerve—the vein on the 
inside. This will be more easily remembered if we take VAN (see plate 
III) to indicate vein, artery and nerve from within outward. All, or 
nearly all of the blood in a dead person is in the veins, consequently w^e 
find the arteries empty or containing but a very slight amount of blood, 
wdiile a vein bleeds profusely when cut. The artery has thick walls, 


POINTS FOR INJECTION. 


feels like a thick tube and remains an open tube when cut across; the 
vein has thinner walls, feels like a single layer of tissue, and if cut across 
collapses, so that it does not appear as a tube. The nerve is easily dis¬ 
tinguished from both artery and vein ; it is white, is a solid cord and no 
cavity can be found within it. 

The brachial artery is smaller than the femoral; it passes along the 
inner side of the arm. Its upper end lies midway between the prominent 
folds of the arm-pit and its lower end in front of the elbow , and exactly in 
the center (See plate V). A line drawn between these two points loill lie 
over the course of the artery ; it lies just under the skin and a varying 
amount of fat. Cut here, as for the femoral, as near as possible to the 
body, to get the artery where it is largest. Here we find the vein on the 
inner side; that is toward the body. Sometimes there are two veins, 
then they lie on either side of the artery. We find two large nerves 
(several small nerves are also near, but are too small to be mistaken for 
the artery) ; the ulnar nerve lies along the inner side of the artery, grad¬ 
ually receding from the artery as they pass down the arm together, and 
finally passing behind the inner part of the elbow ; the median nerve 
lies on the outer side of the artery at the upper part of its course, 
crosses over it at the middle of the arm and lies on its inner side below. 
It is of about the same size as the artery, but will be recognised by 
having no cavity within it. 

The carotid artery begins at the joint formed by the collar-bone and 
breast-bone, and runs upward on a line drawn to a point midway between 
the angle of the lower jaw and the bony prominence bach of the ear (See 
plate IV). It divides into two branches opposite “ Adam’s apple.” We 
must cut, therefore, on the line given below the level of “Adam’s apple.” 
Unlike the brachial and femoral, the carotid artery lies deeply covered 
by muscle, but is about the size of the femoral artery. The great muscle 
running from the head back of the ear, obliquely downward to the breast¬ 
bone, lies over it, and after cutting through the skin on the line given, it 
is best to find the inner edge of the muscle and pull it aside. We find 
the artery under the muscle with the deep jugular vein on its outer side. 
The nerve is a small one, behind the artery and vein, and between them. 

In cutting for the arteries great care should be taken. The knife or 
scalpel should always be as clean and sharp as possible, so that it will 
make a clean, clear incision without much force. At the first, only cut 
through the skin and then with the fingers carefully dissect or tear apart 
the tissue in the direction of the artery as far as possible; and should it 
be desired to go deeper, use a large, dull pointed hook and with it raise 
up the tissue or fascia before cutting further, thereby being better able 
to accurately see just how far you are cutting. When near the arteries 
and veins, one should cut upwards or away from the vessels, lest by an 


280 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


accident he might cut a vein and allow the blood to escape, which in 
some instances from the bleeding would be the cause of much annoyance. 
In operating, always avoid cutting any of the small veins which may be 
in the way, and which by a little care can be avoided. Plenty of time 
must be taken and perfection is attained through practice. The arteries 
which we use for embalming are always incased in a fibrous sheath, which 
should be carefully dissected away so that the arteries, veins and nerves 
can be separated easily. After finding and raising the artery, proceed 
to inject. Raise the artery above the incision, and pass a stick or some¬ 
thing similar under it to hold it up; then with the scalpel or scissors 
make an opening lengthwise into it in its upper half about one-fourth of 
an inch long, and insert the nozzle of the syringe into it toward the 
heart, and then tie the artery firmly to the tube or nozzle. Again tie 
the artery back of the tube, so that the fluid in making its circuit can 
not escape, and proceed to inject. Before inserting the tube, however, 
the syringe should be used a little in the fluid, so as to expel air 
which would otherwise be driven into the arteries. Inject slowly and 
carefully, taking at least ten minutes for each quart of fluid. Should 
too great force be used in injecting, some of the arteries will be ruptured 
and their contents escape into the cavities, tissue or air-tubes of the 
lungs, and escape from the mouth or nose. After injecting sufficiently, 
the artery should be firmly tied above the tube so as to stop the escape 
of fluid when the syringe is removed, after which the incision should be 
filled with cotton, if necessary, to stop any leakage which might occur, 
and neatly sewed up. Now in making an injection, which is the best 
artery to use ? The femoral is the easiest found and it is of practical 
size; the brachial is the smallest and not so easily found ; the carotid is 
large but is found with difficulty, unless one has had a great deal of 
practice in cutting for it. If we inject from the femoral we drive a lit¬ 
tle more blood upward into the face. In some cases that may be consid¬ 
erable, but as a rule the arteries are empty, and then the femoral artery 
is certainly the best one to use. The pulmonary is the other system of 
vessels, besides the general system. The short pulmonary artery runs from 
the heart to the lungs, breaks up into minute branches (capillaries) and 
comes back to the heart as three or four short veins. This system is 
connected with the general system through the heart. Any injection, 
given as directed, will pass into the lungs or lesser system through the 
heart. If too great force be used in injecting, or an attempt be made to 
inject too much, one may rupture the small vessels (capillaries) in the 
lungs, and some of the fluid will escape, pass into the air-tubes (bronchial 
tubes) in the lungs, and escape at the mouth ; this is a frequent cause of 
“ purging '* observed after injection. 

If the upper limbs are well developed, says Richardson, inject the 


RICHARDSON^- METHOD. 


281 


brachial, if not, inject the femoral; and in either case, the right side will 
he more convenient. The brachial (See page 278), is exposed by an inci¬ 
sion on the inner edge of the biceps muscle (the great muscle of the up¬ 
per arm) about midway of the arm. It should be exposed for a full inch 
and a half, and in the line of the vessel (See plate V). It should be well 
lifted up from surrounding parts. An opening is made in the line of 
the vessel and the injecting tube inserted, pushing the point into the ar¬ 
tery toward the heart for a full inch and a half. The artery should then 
be tied around the tube to retain it, and also below the tube to prevent 
loss of injecting liquid. The tube may also be tied to the arm by a tape. 
The chief objection to injection by the carotid (See page 278), is the 
depth at which it lies, and the danger of opening the jugular vein at the 
same time; for it must be remembered that the common carotid artery in 
the neck is inclosed in a fibrous sheath, which also contains the internal 
jugular vein lying to the outer side of the artery, as well as the pneumo^- 
gastric nerve, which lies beneath and behind both; the sheath rests on 
the vertebral column. To the inner side of the carotid is the trachea 
and larynx; to its outer side, and inclosed in its sheath, the jugular vein. 
It may be inferred from the above, that the jugular vein in the neck is 
in close proximity with the carotid artery, and great care must be exer¬ 
cised in puncturing the artery not to injure the vein lying at the side. 

Cavity embalming. In addition to arterial injection, we may aid in 
the preservation of the body by injecting the abdominal (peritoneal) cav¬ 
ity and the cavities in the chest (pleural cavities). The abdominal cav¬ 
ity extends from the ribs, above, to the hip bones, below, and on each 
side, nearly to the spine. In passing a trocar into this cavity, we choose 
the central line, near the navel, because the abdominal wall is thinnest 
in that point. If the instrument be pressed too far, there is danger of go¬ 
ing beyond the cavity and piercing the intestines. To avoid that, pass 
the instrument inward until the end moves about freely; it is then in the 
peritoneal cavity, and injection may be continued until the cavity is 
full. The chest cavities, on each side, contain the lungs. On the left 
side, the heart (See pages 62-63) occupies a space inside of the left nipple. 
On the right, the liver extends upward to the sixth rib. To avoid the 
heart on the left side, and the liver on the right, it is best to introduce a 
trocar between the ribs just at the lower end of the shoulder blade on 
each side. If we pass the trocar too far, we pass beyond the cavity into 
the lining. When the end of the trocar moves freely about, it is in the 
pleural cavity, and we may proceed to inject. Too much fluid injected 
into the cavities may cause “ purging ” by pressure upon the lungs and 
stomach. If it be desired to withdraw dropsical fluid from the cavities 
introduce the trocar into the lower portions of the cavities, and turn the 
body so that the fluid may escape by gravity. 


282 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


The cavities should be injected by using the trocar or hollow needle. 
The throacic or lung cavities should first be injected. Each lung has 
its own cavity. On the right side, inject between the second and fourth 
ribs, so as to avoid the liver, and in the left side inject lower down so as to 
avoid the heart. The abdominal cavity can be injected anywhere below the 
diaphragm, that portion of the body being one entire cavity. When 
there is a failure in getting fluid into the stomach through the mouth or 
nose, the desired end may be gained by injecting into the stomach 
directly with the hollow needle. The largest and most accessible portion 
of the stomach lies on the left side of the body, just below the ribs and 
midway between the lower and central point of the sternum or breast bone, 
and the side of the body at an angle of about forty-five degrees downward. 
By inserting the needle at this point, it will penetrate the stomach 
(marked x 1 on plate I). Should this operation fail, an incision about 
three inches long could be made obliquely over the stomach at the point 
already given, and by the use of a hook and the fingers, the stomach 
can be raised, since, at this point, it rests upon the walls of the abdo¬ 
men; after having raised it, it can be injected with the hollow needle, or 
an opening made into it large enough to pour fluid from a bottle into it, 
after which the incision should be neatly closed. Should it be desired to 
fill the bronchial tubes of the lungs and not possible to do so from the 
mouth, the hollow needle can be used to advantage by inserting it into 
the trachea or wind pipe, just above the collar bone. 

When using the hollow needle, care should be taken to see that it is 
perfectly clean, both outside and inside, so that it will penetrate the tis¬ 
sues easily and the flow of the fluid may not be obstructed. When 
inserting it into the body, if you are unable to get fluid into it, keep 
drawing the needle outward until the fluid flows freely through it; at first 
its point may have been driven into solid tissue, thus preventing the 
ready flow of the fluid. The cavities should not be over-filled, but mod¬ 
erately full. After injecting, the syringe should be removed from the 
hollow needle to allow the escape of gases. The escape of fluid from the 
cavities after removing the hollow needle often causes trouble, and sev¬ 
eral methods have been devised to prevent this. The simplest and best 
way is to use a small, sharply-pointed peg of soft wood; after removing 
the hollow needle, insert the peg in the opening made by the needle, 
and, with a pair of small cutting nippers, cut it off even with the skin, 
and then draw the skin over it, which will hide all traces of the instru¬ 
ment, and is the most effective device yet suggested for this purpose. 

The preceding method, prepared by one of the most successful 
embalmers in this country, is essentially that adopted by all modern 
embalmers. Wherein their methods vary in minor details, we shall 
endeavor to show ; but arterial embalming is the process employed by 


METHODS OF EMBALMING. 


283 


them all, though their solutions vary greatly. Some advise the use of 
the hollow needle, instead of the tube of the syringe, for injection into 
one of the larger arteries of solutions of various kinds. One of the 
very simplest and best of these methods is what is known as the 

LOWELL PROCESS. 

A solution of chloride of zinc is the preservative fluid used; this 
is contained in a porcelain-lined vessel, which is elevated to a con¬ 
venient height, so that the contents will be injected into the cadaver 
after the manner of a gravity-syringe. For the passage of the fluid 
from its receptacle into a vein of the cadaver, glass and rubber tubing 
are. all that is required. A finely-tapered glass tube is held tightly in 
place in the vein, while a glass U-shaped tube acts as a siphon to con¬ 
duct fluid from the receptacle. The quantity of fluid will, of necessity, 
vary in different cases ; four or five gallons may be required. This plan 
will not work when operations have been performed whereby large 
vessels have been opened. Bodies thus treated have been transported 
long distances, without odor, and without disfigurement or any external 
signs of decay. All that is required is that the physician should expose 
a vessel, adjust the glass tube, and the fluid will find its own way. Dr. 
Lowell has let the instrument run all night. Dr. Lowell writes : “ The 
injection may be made by either artery or vein. I have tried both with 
success. I prefer the brachial artery above the elbow as the point for 
introduction of the glass tube, for the primary incision is slighter, and 
consequently divides smaller and fewer veins than when I expose the 
femoral artery. I use the gravity method, and introduce about five 
gallons of the antiseptic fluid. The effects are eminently satisfactory. 
The color of the integument is improved, even at points where hyposta¬ 
sis has been at work. I inspected a cadaver night before last—a lady. 
The body was in splendid condition—skin white and clear, and all points 
of discoloration along spine, nates, posterior surface of thighs, neck, 
etc., clearing up. The patient died of typhoid fever; post-mortem 
discoloration rapidly supervened, and decomposition was rife. All 
changes were arrested, the skin cleared up, and when I saw the body 
last its appearance had improved wonderfully.” 

Richardson’s process. 

Remove all the clothing from the body, cover it with a loose cloth or 
sheet, lay it on its back on a table about seven feet long, two feet six 
inches wide and high; a smaller table, a foot or two higher, is desirable 
for the embalming solution. 

If the stiffness has not passed off, the limbs should be gently flexed 
and extended until relaxation takes place. If it is convenient to lay the 


284 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


body first in a warm bath for sometime, the injected fluid will flow more 
readily. The temperature of the bath should not be above 140 Q F., 
otherwise the muscles and vessels will become rigid, the principal vessels 
be contracted, and the injection obstructed. 

Richardson, as a preliminary step, injects the vapor of ammonia, by 
drawing air into a bellows from the neck of a bottle containing a 
strong solution of ammonia, and injecting the artery through the long 
rubber tube, this is to diminish the resistance of the vessels. 

A bottle containing the antiseptic, zinc solution (F G4) having been 
raised above the level of the body, and by the gentle action of the bel¬ 
lows (See apparatus) caused to flow easily and rapidly into the blood ves¬ 
sels, the quantity injected being measured with precision. 

By the action of a hand-bellows the liquid is slowly and gently pressed 
into the artery. It is better if it run of its own weight for the best 
injections are where the least force is used ; if the bellows is used, and 
the vessels are filling properly, we can detect with each stroke of the 
bellows a pulse-like sensation in the large arteries near the surface. 

After one or one and a half pints have been injected, it is well to 
make a few punctures in the tips of the fingers and toes, through which 
a little of the injection may escape. The appearance of the liquid at these 
openings will show that the tissues are being filled, and will also prevent 
the rupture of vessels into the cavities. The loss of an ounce or two of 
the liquid will make no difference in the success of the embalming. 

After four or five pints are injected, mottling of the skin appears on 
the face and soon extends over the body. These spots are about the size 
of a split jiea and hard; they disappear after a time, and indicate that the 
injection is nearly complete; about one pint more may be slowly injected. 

The first injection will require about two hours; an interval of six to 
twelve hours follows to allow perfect diffusion of the liquid. 

It is well to allow the apparatus to remain in place and additional 
liquid to enter the body by its own pressure. 

At the end of the interval, if the operation is successful, the body 
will be white and very hard, muscles rigid and limbs fixed, while the 
facial expression will probably be lifelike, and a cast of the face may be 
taken. Failure of injection may occur from rupture of vessels into 
cavities; it may be necessary to repeat the injection. If the injection 
has been successful, the artery tube is disconnected from the rest of the 
apparatus, another piece of tubing is attached, and with a syringe four 
to six ounces of the silicate of soda injected. This, coming in contact 
with the chloride of zinc in the arteries, coagulates, and thus fills the 
vessels with a firm collodial plug. The artery tube may now be removed, 
the vessel firmly tied and the opening in the skin neatly closed with silk 
sutures. This can be done so that scarcely a mark will remain. 


METHODS OF EMBALMING. 


285 


The cavity of the abdomen will probably now be found distended 
with gas until a pointed hollow needle is introduced and the abdomen 
pressed upon until the gas escapes. It may be necessary to puncture the 
intestines, this may be done with a long bladed fine bistoury, the blade 
of which is introduced through the needle opening into the cavity and 
zinc colloid (F 65) should now be injected through the hollow needle. 
This coagulates the mucous secretions, intestinal fiber and membrane. 
The needle opening is then closed with a stitch; the same should also be 
injected into each side of the thorax between the third and fourth ribs, 
and a few ounces into the cavity of the skull. To do this a long fine 
hollow needle shaped like a probe is forced into the cavity of the skull 
through that of the nose ; there is very little resistance; the colloid is 
now injected until a little resistance is felt. The needle is now with¬ 
drawn, for the injection would otherwise make posterior pressure on the 
eyeballs, and push them forward. 

wyvodzoff's process. 

The common carotid, brachial and femoral arteries on both sides are 
cut down upon, and their accompanying veins exposed to view, a longi¬ 
tudinal slit, about half an inch in length, is made into the carotid and 
brachial arteries and jugular and brachial veins. The four canulae of 
his apparatus (See page 292) are inserted into the arteries and two ligatures 
placed on each, and fastened in the grooves of the canulae. These 
retain the canulae in position and also prevent regurgitation. The con¬ 
nections of the apparatus are made, the liquid is pressed into the tubes, 
and as soon as these are filled, connection is made with the canulae. The 
liquid passes both upwards and downwards through the arteries. When 
the body begins to swell and the face to get puffy, particularly under the 
eyelids, the canulae should be withdrawn, and arteries tied at both open¬ 
ings. 

The feinorals are now similarly injected, until the liquid itself 
escapes from the open veins. The veins are now tied, and injection con¬ 
tinued until clear liquid begins to flow from the nostrils. The femoral 
arteries are now tied, and the wounds sewn up. Toward the close of 
the operation the abdomen swells up, face and chest become rounded 
and eyelids puffy, skin whiter, more opaque, feeling like parchment. 
After a few days the features resume their natural size, but the parch¬ 
ment condition of the skin continues. After three or six months the 
bodv begins to shrivel; after six to twelve months the skin gets darker 
(sometimes brown), and the body mummifies, the muscles remaining 
soft and flexible. It may last thus for any number of years. The opera¬ 
tion will take from one to six hours, if the body is fresh, the materials 
all ready, and sufficient apparatus is at hand to inject the carotids, 


286 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


brachials and femorals, at the same time. If the operator is skillful 
in reaching and opening the vessels, and if he has an expert assistant, 
the whole operation may be finished in an hour. For fluid, used see 
formula 12. 

CAVITY EMBALMING. 

Instead of arterial injection many embalmers still employ the less 
efficient process of injecting the cavities of the body as a substitute for 
the better method. As there may be times where the latter can not be 
used we give full directions for cavity embalming in the words of one of 
its best exponents : 

“ The first step to be taken upon arrival at the chamber of death, is 
to create a current of fresh air by lowering the upper part of a window, 
or a couple of them if there is no transom-light over the door. Next, 
remove the body from the bed and place it on a cooling board ; this 
board ought to be elevated about one foot at the head; also, the body 
should be raised at an angle of about forty-five degrees; this disposition 
of the body will allow the fluids contained in the circulatory system to 
go down of their own gravitation, and leave the face, neck, and upper 
part of the body uncongested, and therefore free from the purple spots 
that gradually discolor the face and neck. 

“ The mouth must then be firmly closed by means of a ligature tied 
tigthly around the head and passed under the apex of the chin ; this lig¬ 
ature should be kept in place until the rigor mortis has firmly set the 
jaws together. 

“ The eves must next be attended to ; the lids must be brought 
together firmly, avoiding at the same time interference of the lashes, or 
the creation of wrinkles of the skin on the corners, using pads not larger 
than a quarter of a dollar, soaked in some antiseptic solution, such as 
corrosive sublimate (See formula 30), which should be used with caution 
and kept protected from the light. 

“ The face and body should be washed all over with tepid water and 
soap, and perfectly dried with towels. Make a diaper out of cloth, 
fasten the same firmly around the loins, and pin the same well in front. 
The face should be well moistened with an antiseptic solution, and a 
double cloth laid carefully and evenly over the features, so as to come in 
direct contact with every part of the same. This cloth must be kept 
moist with the solution, and remain there until such time as the body is 
placed in the coffin. Fold neatly some small pieces of cotton, saturate ' 
them well with solution, and cover over the chest and abdomen. 

The next step to be taken, consists in preventing frothing or purging 
from the mouth and nostrils; also, keeping down generation of gases, 
and swelling of the stomach and bowels. 

Make an incision about four or five inches in length in the abdomen, 


CAVITY EMBALMING. 


287 


above the traverse arch of the colon; this incision will reveal the colon 
and upper part of the large intestines, also the stomach a little to the 
left; the colon and some of the smaller intestines are punctured, and 
after expelling the gases and air by firmly pressing on the abdomen, are 
injected with about eight ounces of the solution. (See formula 22.) The 
bowels being injected, the stomach is emptied of its contents by punc¬ 
turing its walls and by pressing gently upon its outer surface in a down¬ 
ward direction; the matter contained in it will be forced out into the 
abdominal cavity, and can then be either sponged or scooped out; the 
stomach is then injected in a similar manner as the bowels; some of the 
solution is then poured between the interstices of the bowels, and some 
cotton batting laid evenly over the bowels, the cotton well saturated 
with the same solution; the lips of the wound are then brought together 
and neatly sewed up. It will be readily understood by the above 
described operation that no gases can be generated in either the bowels 
or the stomach, as the injecting fluid in those parts of the viscera will 
effectually prevent their formation; and this being the case, the purging 
at the mouth and nostrils, which is the result of the escape of gas driving 
out the contents of the stomach, is avoided. The expansion of the 
abdominal viscera, or the bowels, is also prevented by the same cause. 

It will be understood that this process cannot be successfully applied 
where the corpse is that of a person who has died of some contagious or 
infectious disease. And it should always be remembered that at best cavity 
embalming is but a poor substitute for arterial injection, even though 
the hollow needle (See page 291) is used, which simplifies the process so 
that it can be performed by anyone; and yet even with this most useful 
instrument it is impossible to as thoroughly permeate the tissues as by 
arterial injection. 

In using the hollow needle, the body is laid on a cooling board, and, 
all preliminary details having been attended to as before, the needle is 
inserted in the abdomen at or near the umbilicus; the point is directed 
toward and into the stomach; a gentle pressure with the hand over this 
organ will cause its gaseous and liquid contents to escape through the 
needle. This done, the instrument is drawn back about half its length, 
and brought down vertically almost in a straight line with the middle of 
the sternum, so as to perforate the traverse part of the colon, or large 
intestine. The gas or any liquid then contained in that part of the 
viscera, will thus find an outlet. This same operation may be repeated 
for the other parts of the abdomen containing the small intestines, and 
the needle may then be withdrawn. As to the gases or liquids which 
may have accumulated between the intestines and the walls of the abdo¬ 
men, they will escape through the needle, or the small aperture caused by 
it. To assist in thus expelling morbid products, whether gaseous or fluid. 


£88 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


the hand may be applied to the different parts which the needle is Sup¬ 
posed to have perforated, pressing gently, and in such a way as to direct 
the escape to the outlet left by the needle. It is not expected that the 
solid contents of the stomach, or the feces contained in the bowels, can 
be got rid of through the agency of the needle, but we consider that the 
properties of the fluid thereafter injected into and around these organs 
will arrest the putrid tendencies of those substances. 

This part of the operation having been satisfactorily performed, inject 
through the nostrils, by means of the flexible tube, as much of the fluid 
as the chest will contain. This part of the process can be performed in 
a more complete manner by artificially reproducing the movements of 
respiration, while the injection is taking place through the nostrils. 
When the quantity thus injected has filled the trachea, further injection 
must be suspended, and the nostrils filled with cotton. 

The cavity of the chest surrounding the lungs, and the lungs them¬ 
selves, can be injected by forcing the needle under the lower part of the 
sternum and injecting by turns the right and left sides of the body. To 
inject tiie fluid into the abdomen and stomach, the handling of the needle 
is the same as above given for the expulsion of gases, and inject through 
the needle from the same perforation made. Before 'puncturing the body 
with the holloiv needle, stretch the skin to one side, so as to cover the open¬ 
ing made in the flesh after the needle is withdrawn. 

The use of the needle does away with the knife, leaves a barely percept¬ 
ible trace behind, no gaping wound, suture, or, in fact, any of the usual 
marks of a surgical operation, which will at all times impress the by¬ 
stander in a more or less unpleasant manner, but its chief advantage lies 
in the fact, that the body need not be in a state of nudity to successfully 
apply the process; a small rent in the clothing, or a rent in the dress, 
however diminutive, will be sufficient for practical purposes. However, 
when the remains of a person are to be thoroughly embalmed, arterial in¬ 
jection should always precede that of the needle, for the good reason that 
the introduction of the needle into the abdomen or the chest is always 
attended with some danger to the integrity of the circulating system. 
The point of the needle may so wound or lacerate the walls of the num¬ 
erous arteries inclosed in the thorax and abdomen, that, should a subse¬ 
quent injection of the arteries be performed, the course of the liquid 
would terminate at this point, and overflow into the surrounding tissues 
or cavity. 


QUANTITY OF FLUID RP]QUIRED. 

The amount to be used depends altogether upon the size and condi¬ 
tion of the body. The arteries of a large muscular person, or of a person 
who, during life, pursued some kind of manual labor, will be found quite 


DIRECTIONS FOR EMBALMING. 289 

large, and very easy to find and inject, and will take fluid quite readily, 
the arteries of men who are unaccustomed to hard work, and those of 
females generally, are quite small considering the size of the body, and 
are not so easily found and will take less fluid. There is no rule to go by 
in estimating the quantity of fluid necessary to inject the body. The 
best way is to inject carefully, no matter which artery used, until they 
stand out quite prominently on each side of the bridge of the nose and on 
the forehead, then you should stop for a time at least. If a good pene¬ 
trating fluid be used, the body will again, after the lapse a few hours, 
take nearly as lfiuch again. Wyvodzoff follows the rule that the quan¬ 
tity of injecting fluid used must be half the weight of the body. 

Doctor Sucquet used 4^- quarts chloride of zinc solution; Renouard 
requires 5 pints for a full-grown person. Ilowse, as described elsewhere, 
uses 14 quarts arseniated glycerine, followed by glycerine alone until two 
gallons have been used in all. Richardson employs a pint or a pint and a 
half of strong zinc solution, then punctures the toes and uses in all 5 or 
G pints with his zinc colloid (See formula G5); of the latter 6 oz. for the 
abdomen, 4 oz. for each side of the thorax and 1 to 2 oz. for the cranium. 
Lecanu used seven litres (about 11 pints) of his solution. 

TIME REQUIRED FOR INJECTION. 

It is a fact worthy of notice, that the injection of the arterial system 
should be conducted in a very slow and methodical manner, and the whole 
amount of fluid necessary for the preservation of the body ought never to 
be introduced at once, but in small quantities and at intervals varying 
in length according to the nature of the case and size of the person. 

At least ten minutes should be taken for each quart used. Richard¬ 
son (page 280) allows two hours for injection of chloride of zine and an 
interval of from G to 12 hours before the introduction of the silicate solu¬ 
tion. Wyvodzoff’s process requires from one to six hours. Renouard 
says very justly of arterial injection, on this subject, the principal art 
required in this process is to be very careful not to use too much force in 
driving the fluid into the tissues, and not to use too much fluid. The 
fluid can be injected quite cold, and will find its way. 

APPARATUS REQUIRED FOR EMBALMING. 

The following cuts illustrate the instruments required by the 
embalmer in the performance of his duties. The syringe illustrated is 
from a photograph of a newly-invented instrument. 

The principal feature of this ingenious improvement consists in a 
simple change in the formation of the rubber outlet tube, which com¬ 
pletely changes the action from an intermittent to a steady continuous 
flow. The flexible tube is made of very fine rubber, vulcanized in a cor- 

19 



290 































































































































































INSTRUMENTS FOR EMBALMING. 


291 


rugated or inwardly folded form (as shown in cross-section at 0 and P), 
so as to contract its capacity and allow expansion ; and when expanded 
from internal pressure it is simply a flexible tube, slightly larger than 
those usually made (as shown in cross-section Q), with an elastic tendency 
to contract into its dormant corrugated form, with the walls inclose 
proximity on their inner surfaces (See P). 

When the bulb is lightly compressed, in the usual manner, the liquid 
flows into and expands this flexible tube into a temporary reservoir, and 
the elastic tendency of the rubber to regain its dormant folded shape 
creates an automatic pressure, assists the action of the syringe, and keeps 
up the flow, while the bulb is expanding and refilling. 

The socket or extreme end of flexible tube is made from pure soft 
rubber, and the instruments B, D and F are of hard rubber, and are 
attached to this socket by simply being forced into the soft rubber socket, 
without threads, as in the common syringes; thereby making a perfect 
air-tight joint, thus doing away with leaking and soiling of linen with 
embalming fluids, so common with other kinds of pumps and syringes. 
The canulas B are used to inject fluid into the arteries. The one in the 
center of cut being small enough to be used in injecting the carotid arte¬ 
ries of a newly-born infant. The catheter C, by means of the soft rub¬ 
ber pipe on its end, is attached to canula B by simply being forced on it; 
the expanding of the pipe making a perfect joint; it is used in injecting 
fluid into the stomach through the mouth or nose, and is often used with 
advantage in connection with an aspirator by raising the internal jugular 
vein, and running it downward to the heart, in order to remove the 
blood from the body. 

Before attempting to use this instrument, it should be placed in 
warm water, thus making it more flexible. F is also used like the 
catheter, but is attached to the soft rubber socket directly. The trocar 
G is used in connection with the socket Id ; in using this instrument, 
the point of Gf is inserted into tube H, and is used in removing water 
from the abdomen of dropsical subjects by inserting it into the most 
dependent portions of the cavity; while in that position, remove instru¬ 
ment G, and the fluids will pass out through the tube II, and after all of 
the fluids have been withdrawn, remove tube H, and close up the opening 
either by a ligature, cotton, or by using a sharply-pointed soft wooden 

P e g- 

Aneurism needle I is used in making incisions and raising arteries; 
its point should have a neat round edge. After cutting through the 
outer tissues, this instrument is used to assist the fingers in tearing 
apart the tissues and separating the arteries from the nerves, veins and 
sheaths in which they are incased. The eye in the needle is used in 
assisting to pass a string under the arteries. Scalpel J is used in 


292 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


making incisions, and should always he kept perfectly sharp, with a keen 
cutting edge. Forceps K is used for various purposes, but more partic¬ 
ularly in assisting in raising arteries. L are surgeon’s needles. The 
circular needle is used in sewing up the lips when required. The opera¬ 
tion is performed by passing a fine thread on the inner side of the.lips 
near the gums. The straight needle is used in sewing up incisions after 
a post-mortem or in raising any of the arteries. M is thread used in 
sewing up incisions or tying the canulse in the arteries. It has long 
been the belief among members of the profession that for this purpose 
nothing but silk could be used, which is incorrect. Silk, as a rule, is 
too sharp or cutting for this purpose, and at the same time too expensive. 
The best thread for this purpose being common saddlers’ thread, which is 
cheap, smooth and strong, answering every purpose much better than silk. 
D is a hollow needle which is attached to the syringe, and is used in inject¬ 
ing the cavities of the body. The point of this instrument is supplied 
with several openings, thus affording an easy escape of fluid, in case the 
p^oint is closed, or one of these openings is in a cavity or some part 
requiring injection, while the point of the instrument was beyond it. 
E is simply a small rod used for clearing obstructions in tube D. W is 
a soft rubber cap to be used to close end of canula B when it is desired 
to let the canula remain in the artery for a second injection, thus doing 
away with the necessity of removing it and tying the artery, as is neces¬ 
sary with other styles of instruments. 

One great advantage in using rubber instruments is that they require 
very little attention or cleaning. Should they be put away immediatelv 
after using without cleaning no harm will be done, as in the case of 
metal instruments. After using the metal instruments they should be 
well washed with soap-suds and well dried by heat before being put away. 

There are cases where hydrostatic pressure is preferable to the pump 
or syringe in injecting a body arterially, as in the case of some of the 
arteries being ruptured in a body, as is not unfrequently the case in 
dropsies, pleurisies, tumors, and diseases of the respiratory organs, 
especially consunrption, all of which will be fully discussed in their 
appropriate section. 

In such cases the pressure from a syringe, no matter how even, would 
be too great, and as a usual result the fluid would escape from the nose 
or mouth, or into some of the cavities of the body, thus not accomplishing 
all that might be desired. After many experiments by the writer, it has 
been fully demonstrated that in such cases a perfect injection can be 
obtained by procuring a one gallon rubber bag with a hole in its bottom, 
or a large fountain syringe, attaching a rubber pipe to the bag, and at 
the other end of the tube a canula B, and inserting the canula into the 
artery. Hang the syringe or bag about six inches above the body to be 


APPARATUS FOR EMBALMING. 


293 


injected. Should it he found that the pressure is too great, lower it a 
little, and in this position let the fluid run until you are satisfied that 
enough has been used. In all cases where the fountain syringe can be 
used, it is preferable, for it is the only true way to inject the arteries 
properly. It is surprising how large an amount of a good, penetrating 
fluid the body will take up by this method. Before using any syringe, 
fluid should be first run through it so as to expel the air that otherwise 
would be forced into the arterial system. 

There are other forms of apparatus, one of which is figured later. The 
ordinary Richardson apparatus consisting of a graduated bottle, which 
will hold six or more pints of liquid and which can be fitted like a 
AVolff’s bottle with tubes. A short tube passing through the cork, 
has attached to it a double hand bellows; and to the long exit tube is 
connected a long rubber tube, to the other end of which is the artery 
tube. It is well to put the liquid in the bottle and attach the long tube 
before going to the place where the embalming is to be done; then the 
different steps of the operation can proceed without delay. 

Dr. Richardson's bottle holds 
six pints of liquid, and is fitted 
into a basket in which it may be 
carried. The artery tube connects 
with the long rubber tube with 
the tap attached. By the action 
of the syringe or double bulb bel¬ 
lows attached to the other tube 
the liquid is pressed into the ar¬ 
teries. 

Dr. Wywodzoff's apparatus 
consists of a glass jar. A, seven¬ 
teen centim. in length, eleven 
centim. in diameter, having the 
capacity of four pounds (pints). 
This jar is hermetically closed by 
a brass cover, B, which is con¬ 
nected to a heavy brass stand, C, 
by six brass rods secured by nuts. 
Through the cover passes a glass 
funnel, D, with a stop-cock for 
passing the liquid into the jar. 
A brass tube, E, with a cock, 
permits the exit of the air, when 
the fluid is poured into the jar; 
DK. wywodzoff’s afparatus. an air-pump, F, for the condens- 






































































































204 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


ation of air, lias a piston with a spiral spring. Through the barrel 
of the pump, besides the channel for the passage of the air, there 

is also a glass tube, G, which arises from the bottom of the glass 

jar, and is continuous with the channel of the cylinder, which is 
bent at a right angle, and connected to the horizontal tube II. The 
horizontal tube II, at its termination, affords an attachment to the rub¬ 
ber branch, K. The tube H, has also a stop-cock, L, for controlling 
the flow of the liquid, and a manometer, M, by which the pressure of 
the liquid is determined, and the flow regulated. The glass manometer 
is inclosed in a brass tube, which has divisions indicating the atmos- 
pheric pressure. The only part of the apparatus that remains to be 
described is the T-shaped canula N, which is designed for introduction 
into the artery, and to be connected with the rubber branch, K. 

The apparatus is brought into action in the following manner. All 

the stop-cocks D, E, L, are opened, and the jar is filled with the anti¬ 

septic fluid through the funnel II, while the air escapes through the 
tube E. The cocks are then closed, and the air-pump used. Under 
the pressure of the air, the liquid rises in the tube G, and passes into 
the horizontal tube II. One part of the liquid passes into the mano¬ 
meter, and rises to one of the divisions, according to the amount of 
pressure exerted ; the other part of the liquid (the cock L, being open) 
passes into the rubber branch, K, which at the time of injection is con¬ 
nected to the T-shaped canula, N. 

It is evident from the above description, that the higher the liquid 
arises in the manometer the greater will be the force and volume of 
liquid ejected. The flow of the liquid can be increased or diminished at 
pleasure by turning the stop-cock L. But if it should be necessary to 
keep the column of the liquid in the manometer at a certain height, in 
order that the flow of the liquid may be regular, the pumps must be 
constantly used. 

The addition of the hollow needle to the undertaker's list of instru¬ 
ments (See page 287), is a real acquisition. This little sharp-pointed 
steel tube, perforated at the extremity, affords alike a means of egress to 
the gases accumulated in the body, and also serves to introduce the pre¬ 
serving fluid into the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The needle, when 
dexterously used and skillfully handled, completely, and with advantage, 
replaces the knife in many places, e. g ., 

1. The needle, when adroitly directed into the several organs, or 
parts of the viscera which are to be relieved from the gases therein 
accumulated, will effect the intended purpose thoroughly, and without 
leaving a wound of undue proportions. 

2. It will reach deeply-set organs and cavities, which otherwise 
would necessitate extensive operations with the knife. 


APPARATUS FOR EMBALMING. 


295 


3. It reduces the process of preservation to a very simple operation 
which can be performed in a short time and without any further 
attention being required on the part of the operator. But if the advantages 
derived from a judicious manipulation of the needle will benefit the 
operator in the handling of the bodies, it also becomes equally inert and 
almost useless where the operator reveals his lack of familiarity with 
the different uses to which it can be adapted, and his ignorance of its 
most useful results. 

Another apparatus not figured acts on the principle of the auto¬ 
matic syringe, the pressure on the surface of the fluid forcing the liquid 
up the long tube in the bottle and over the tube on the left-hand side. 
The left-hand tube terminates in a stoj>cock, to which the needle to be 
inserted in the artery is joined. The tube leading to the bottle is India 
rubber, of an eighth of an inch bore, and may be several feet long. 
Before the arterial needle is tied in the artery, the stop-cock is turned 
off, so that no fluid may pass. 

When the needle is fixed, the stop-cock is opened, and the bottle is 
raised on a table three feet above the level of the lower end of the inject¬ 
ing tube. As a rule, the fluid will now descend by its own weight, and 
gravitate all over the body; but if it fail to do this, additional pressure 
for a short time will be sufficient to carry on the current. 

Mr. Howse recommends two tubes with stop-cocks and long nozzles 
for the artery, one directed upwards and the other downwards. He uses 
a rubber tube dijqied into the reservoir of liquid, which is elevated above 
the level of the body, the other end of the tube being connected with 
the artery tube. This syphon must, of course be filled first, and as it 
takes a long time for the viscid glycerine to fill it, he fills it first with 
his arsenite of potash preservative. 

Meanwhile the stop-cock of the artery tube is kept closed, until the 
tube is filled. The tube is then turned down into the reservoir, the 
stop-cock opened and the glycerine flows slowly in. Of the arsenical 
glycerine which he uses, a quart and a half will be enough to inject first, 
followed by glycerine alone. 

It is necessary that the tube be kept full of the liquid, or bubbles 
getting in and being forced into the blood vessels will stop the injection. 

The height of the reservoir above the body will vary with the viscidity 
of the liquid, from three to six feet. 

The appearance of the arborescent veins over the surface of the body, 
shows that the injection is flowing satisfactory. 

DIFFICULTIES, PRECAUTIONS AND PRACTICAL HINTS. 

When upon injection, a body becomes black or of varying dark 
shades of color, it is due to the driving of the blood into the small ves- 


29G 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


sels (veins and arteries.) of the skin. During injection the solution used 
passes into the arteries, and finally into the veins, displacing the blood 
and driving it to the surface of the body. It can be expelled by 
patiently rubbing the hands over the face and neck, forcing the blood 
toward the large vessels and heart; or by using bleaching solutions, the 
natural color may be restored. Can we get rid of the blood by with¬ 
drawing it from the body? No; first, because of the valves in the veins, 
which prevent the blood from flowing except in one direction, and that 
toward the heart; second, because of clots forming just at death which 
plug the vessels or instruments we use in our attempts to withdraw the 
blood. Some blood can be withdrawn by opening veins in the extrem¬ 
ities and neck as you inject through an artery, but the amount is 
small. Elevation of the head will, of course, allow the blood to gravi¬ 
tate to more dependent portions of the body, and is useful in addition, 
to forcing the blood from the face by rubbing. Purging from the mouth 
is due to the escape of liquid from the lungs through the windpipe. If 
gas forms in the intestines, the pressure of the gas on the stomach and 
lungs, forces out their contents, and the body “purges.” Hence, re¬ 
move the gas to stop the purging, by piercing the intestines through the 
abdomen, at any point, with a trocar or knife. Purging from too for¬ 
cible or too much injecting will cease without interference. 

Renouard directs, “ when the body is that of a stout, fleshy person, 
esjiecially when some length of time has elapsed from the time of death, 
until the undertaker has been called in, and particularly if the body has 
been reclining in a horizontal position, the face, neck, and shoulders will 
be found highly congested with blood; the face, in fact, may.be swelled 
and of a purple appearance, owing to the extravasation of blood into the 
capillary vessels under the skin * * * in such cases, and after 
the body has been removed and placed in a proper position on the cool¬ 
ing board, if the blood is not carried to some lower part of the body, by 
its own gravitation, it may be found necessary to cut into the jugular 
veins on either side of the neck, or only into one of them, an incision 
about a quarter of an inch; through this opening the congested blood 
may be let out, and the face will soon recover its original color. This 
process occupies about twenty minutes. 

Difficulties from disease. Difficulty in embalming is sometimes due 
to organic disease, as where there there is disorganization of tissues, or 
dropsy, or large tumors, or such disease of the arteries as causes them to 
rupture from the pressure of the injection. Such difficulties from 
disorganization of tissue are usually found in consumption of the lungs. 
The preservative fluid finds its way into the cavities in the lung, and 
may even rise in the trachea; this escape of liquid is attended with an 
audible sound with each stroke of syringe. If, therefore, cavities 


SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 



are known to exist, extreme gentleness must be used in injecting; when 
rupture does occur, the chest must be opened, and a ligature be passed 
around the root of each lung. The injection is then made in the aorta. 

Dropsy. The dropsical fluid in the thorax and abdomen must be re¬ 
moved. The preservative liquid causes coagulation in the dropsical 
accumulations of the trunk and limbs and this obstructs the instru¬ 
ment. 

The greatest force may be insufficient to make the injection flow 
freely; if punctures are made to let out the dropsical fluid, the injection 
escapes also. Richardson advises in such a case to give up injection by 
the arteries and inject by the subcutaneous tissues through several hun¬ 
dred openings. 

A large tumor should be removed, and also the organ in which it is 
developed. The injection may then be introduced through several 
arteries; where the arteries themselves are diseased, the utmost o-entle- 
ness must be used in injecting, and the liquid should be injected into 
the arch of the aorta. 

Precautions. The fewer and smaller the incisions the less loss of 
injection liquid; the injection should stop finally when there is strong 
pressure and the body begins do become swollen; it is well, though not 
necessary, to inject some of the liquid into the bowels and bladder; the 
operator should wear gloves, to protect from the acid fluid; liquid 
may escape from the nostrils for several days afterwards; the lips and 
cheeks may be slightly touched with rouge if necessary. 

The mode of operation in all cases may be the same, but the nature 
and quantity of the injection will vary; first, with the climate and circum¬ 
stances of the atmosphere; second, with the cause of death; third, with 
the age of the deceased; fourth, with the state of the body after death; 
fifth, with the length of time which has elapsed since death took place. 

It has been demonstrated in a previous chapter that a high tempera¬ 
ture is conducive to rapid decomposition of organic matter; also, that a 
warm, moist atmoophere will operate in the same manner. It is, there¬ 
fore, incumbent upon the operator to guard against these two agents of 
putrefaction, by keeping the body in a moderately cool and well venti¬ 
lated place, until the work of preserving is accomplished; also, to give 
the antiseptics employed, time to successfully destroy and render harm¬ 
less the dangerous effects of the heat. 

It must not be understood by the preceding caution that a body can¬ 
not be embalmed in an ordinary room during the heat of summer; but 
the suggestion herein given is solely for the purpose of facilitating the 
operation and rendering the success certain; besides, the strength as well 
as the quantity of the injection must be increased when used during the 
warm season. 


298 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


As to the modifications to be observed in the treatment of bodies 
when the cause of death is taken into consideration. In cases where death 
is the result of a certain class of diseases, the body is more prone to 
putrefy than in others; whilst in other cases again the body is, to a cer¬ 
tain extent, preserved from corruption by the agents which have proved 
fatal to the organism; as, for instance, when death has been the result 
of poisoning, either by alcohol or arsenic. 

The age of the person deceased and the conditions of the body after, 
as also the length of time elapsed since death took place, as affecting the 
mode of treatment, have all been discussed in the section on Putrefac¬ 
tion, and it is not necessary to repeat the same over again. 

The important point which we have to press on your mind is, that 
circumstances in every case are to be investigated; also, that a uniform 
treatment of all cases will be a failure; and that a thorough knowledge 
and expedience are necessary to achieve satisfactory results. 

Discrimination and judgment are to be used in every case. Some are 
too ready to condemn a certain process, or to question the properties of 
some antiseptics, because the first trial of either has proved an ignominious 
failure; whereas, the real cause of all the trouble lies in their ignorance 
of the laws which govern the mode of proceeding, and the use of the 
chemicals placed at their disposition. 

Others, again, are prone to extol the merits of some preparation, the 
component parts of which they do not know, but it may have done them 
good service in several instances; and when, contrary to their expec¬ 
tations, it fails to answer the purpose, they lose faith in it, discard it 
altogether as worthless, and never entertain the idea that an alteration of 
the quantity used, or in the combination and strength of constituents, is 
the real source of mischief. Hence, it is a fact and not to be denied 
that a diagnosis is necessary before the work of embalming is entered 
into. And he who would endeavor to preserve the body of a stout, 
fleshy person by the same means employed in the preserving of a body 
emaciated by long suffering, and under different conditions of tempera¬ 
ture, will not meet with success equal to his expectations. 

To prevent purging a simple method is to dispose of the gastric juice 
of the stomach by injecting into the nose or mouth one or two ounces of 
an aqueous solution of any powerful antiseptic, and after a few moments 
carry the head off the bed, and by gently pressing the stomach, empty 
its contents. This will prevent further difficulty from purging, if 
refilled with the solution and carefully sealed. Insert an instrument 
into the trachea, and thus give vent to the gases in the lungs, and inject 
full of the solution. 

In hot weather it is well to wrap the body, after injection, in cloths 
soaked with carbolized glycerine. The inside of the mouth is usually 


SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 


299 


filled with tow, to prevent the sinking in of the cheeks, and the nostrils 
are also treated in the same manner, and for a similar purpose. 

The wind-pipe should be opened and a cork placed in it, when dur¬ 
ing the injection the fluid escapes through the mouth. 

“ The eyelids may be brought evenly together, and if necessary, 
secured by one or two stitches of fine silk, the nostrils carefully plugged 
with fine cotton-wool saturated with zinc colloid; the mouth brushed 
with zinc colloid; the lips neatly closed, if necessary, with one or two 
minute stitches under the mucous membrane. The body may now 
be wrapped evenly with bandages saturated with carbolic or zinc colloid. 
The bandaging should commence at the feet, each lower limb being 
wrapped separately ; above the hips the bandages should cross, and 
should be passed in alternate crossings so as to incase the trunk quite up 
to the neck; they should here again diverge and extend down the arm 
on each side to the wrists, where they should end. The hands and face 
are then left exposed. The body may now be clothed, the hair arranged, 
and the body removed to the shell. If to be conveyed by sea, the shell, 
between the body and lid, should be packed with a blanket or pillow to 
prevent disfigurement from the motion of the ship. (Richardson.) 

A thin coat of perfectly transparent varnish is sometimes applied to 
all parts of the body and face which are not covered by a growth of 
hair, and when dry the corpse is completely protected from the atmos¬ 
phere. 

EUROPEAN METHODS OF EMBALMING AND PRESERVATION OF THE 

DEAD. 

The following process, which has been successfully employed in 
Europe, especially in France and Italy, for a long time, for embalming 
bodies and for the preservation of anatomical preparation, is still prac¬ 
ticed extensively, owing to the cheapness of the materials used, and 
its simplicity. 

Lay the body on an inclined board, as described in a former chapter, 
and after thoroughly cleansing with water and soap, saturate well with a 
concentrated solution of alum; the body should be kept well moistened 
with the solution in the same manner as above described until the opera¬ 
tion is completed. 

Through an opening made in the skin of the abdomen, and imme¬ 
diately over the traverse part of the colon; the bowels and the stomach 
will then be revealed, and must be emptied of their contents and 
properly cleansed, and injected with the preparation. 

After the contents of the abdomen have thus been treated, the whole 
abdominal viscera are to be heavily sprinkled over with tannic acid, until 
the acid forms a layer of about one-half inch in thickness between the 


300 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


bowels and the skin of the abdomen; the flaps of the skin are then 
brought together and neatly sewed up. Make an incision on the right 
basilic vein, and the blood in some cases, will issue very freely, and the 
flow of it must continue until the embalming fluid makes its appearance. 

To inject the circulatory system, extend the left arm at a right 
angle with the body and open the axillary artery, about three inches 
from the armpit. The axillary artery is a continuation of the sub¬ 
clavian artery: it passes through the axilla or arm pit into the arm, 
hence is called the axillary artery; that part of its continuation into the 
upper arm is called brachial artery, and in the fore arm, it divides into 
the radial and ulnar arteries, which are distributed to the hand and 
fingers. (See Plate IY.) 

Through the opening thus made in the axillary artery, two gallons of 
embalming fluid may be injected slowly and steadly, or such quantity as 
may be found necessary to completely fill the arterial and venous 
systems. 

After the blood has ceased to flow from the opening in the basilic 
vein the wounds must be sewed up, and the body moistened with the 
solution, is left to dry in a cool, well ventilated place. 

The surface of the body, as also the face may be mottled in some 
places with white spots, but the skin will soon assume a uniform color, 
and the blotches will disappear. 

After the solution on the body has become sufficiently dry, and has 
penetrated the pores of the skin, the excess of moisture must be wiped 
off with a clean towel. 

The nostrils should be hermetically sealed, by introducing into them 
some cotton, well saturated with gum shellac dissolved in alcohol. 

The eye caps must be introduced under the eyelids as mentioned in 
the former chapter, and the eyes well closed. The body is then saturated 
with a thin coating of turpentine ; and after the turpentine is dry, the 
clothing can be put on, and the body is then ready for interment.” 

This process is very simple, and has given satisfactory results. 

Lecanu thus describes his process : “The body of a man, aged thirty 
years, who died of typhoid fever, was brought in for dissection. The 
external appearance of the corpse presented strong marks of dissolution. 
The abdomen, already slightly tinged with greenish streaks, was dis¬ 
tended with gas ; the neck and lower part of the face showed unmistak¬ 
able signs of swelling, and the evolution of internal gases caused a frothy 
mucus to appear at the corners of the mouth, the popliteal artery was 
uncovered and the canula of a syringe containing the injecting fluid 
(See formula 49) introduced into the vessel. Gradually the abdomen 
resumed its normal size, the bluish green tint of the skin faded per¬ 
ceptibly. After injecting the seventh litre mucus was rejected from the 


EUROPEAN METHODS. 


301 


mouth. The operation was then suspended, and the artery firmly tied 
up. The canula of the syringe was then inserted and the lower parts of 
the limbs treated in a similar manner. On the next day the incipient 
swelling of the head and neck had disappeared, and the discoloration 
of the abdomen scarcely visible. Nine weeks afterwards the subject was 
still in a state of perfect preservation, in spite of adverse circumstances, 
and was used in the prosecution of anatomical studies. 

Lacorolli, of Genoa, who, according to all accounts, is one of the 
most successful of modern embalmers, uses a solution very like LecaniPs, 
consisting of carbolic acid, the chloride of zinc and mercury, and some 
odorous substance. The details of his process have not yet been pub¬ 
lished in this country, though doubtless will be before long, for a short 
time ago he read a paper at a meeting of the Medical Society of Genoa, 
in which he gave a full explanation of his process. 

Prof. Laskowsky, of the University of Geneva, who is also a very 
successful European embalmer, is reported to use an injecting liquid 
consisting of a mixture of carbolic acid, chloride of zinc, and corrosive 
sublimate with the addition of an odoriferous essence. This solution is 
as clear as crystal and pleasant to smell. A body skilfully treated by 
Prof. Laskowsky’s method, assumes immediately after death, “the 
natural and agreeable expression 99 it bore, and the skin becomes firm and 
as white as Carrara marble. 

The proportions of the ingredients used are not known, and do not 
appear to have been published. In 1877 he used a mixture of glycerine 
and carbolic acid in crystals, injecting about 5 quarts; the vessels were 
filled in twenty minutes. The bodies are well preserved, but the skin 
becomes brownish in time. The liquid was prepared by liquifying the 
carbolic acid in a capsule, mixing it with a little glycerine heated to 176 
degrees F. over a water bath, and pouring this into the remaining gly¬ 
cerine, stirring with a glass rod until well mixed. 

THE BRUNETTI PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 

1st. Washing out the circulatory system of the body with cold water 
until the water comes back clean. (Takes from two to five hours.) 

2d. Alcohol similarly used to extract water. (One-quarter of an 
hour.) 

3d. Ether to remove fatty matter, from two to ten hours. 

4th. Strong tanning solution is allowed to percolate for two to ten 
hours. 

5th. Body then dried in a current of warm air passed over calcium 
chloride, and after two to five hours becomes hard as stone and will keep 
indefinitely. (For details see English patents.) 


302 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


The Italians exhibit specimens which are as hard as stone, retain the 
shape perfectly and are equal to the best wax models. 

In this process it will be noticed that those substances most prone to 
decay are removed and the remaining portions are converted by the 
tannin into a substance resembling leather, and thus effectively pro¬ 
tected against decomposition for years. 

It is a matter of record in Vienna, that deceased members of the 
imperial family, whose bodies were embalmed about twenty-three years ago, 
are at present in a perfect state of preservation; although perhaps the 
features are a little more angular, the skin may have acquired a slightly 
yellow tinge, still, the familiar expression remains unchang.ed, and the 
aspect of the countenance has not varied ; but truth compels us here to 
say, that in all cases mentioned, the bodies have been as usual hermetically 
sealed in lead caskets. 

At the inception of this work, Prof Billings, then in Europe, was 
especially requested to investigate the subject of embalming and funeral 
customs as practiced abroad. His interesting account just received, is 
reproduced here entire: 

“In the large cities of France, Germany, Italy and Austria, mutual 
cooperation burial societies exist; these societies, like mutual life insur¬ 
ance companies in this country, having grades of different degrees. Any 
person can become a member upon the payment of a certified sum of 
money and the payment during life of a certain sum in monthly or 
yearly installments. The poor insure themselves the cheapest form of 
funeral; the better class and the rich paying for more elaborate and 
sometimes magnificent funeral display. A necessary part in all funerals 
is the ‘mute ’—a paid mourner, dressed in black uniform — with tall 
silk hat in Paris, and with cocked hat in Germany, Austria and Italy. 
These ( mutes’ precede and follow the plain or magnificent hearse or 
funeral car, as the case may be. In Paris, one may see the coffin carried 
upon a stretcher by two ‘mutes’ while the mourning friends walk be¬ 
hind ; this being the cheapest form of funeral. The number of the 
‘mutes,’ like the decorations of the hearse, is proportionate to the 
amount paid during life by the deceased or friends. In Catholic burials 
the ‘mutes’ carry long wax candles for some distance beyond the 
church. The drivers of hearses and carriages in the funeral train wear 
cocked hats, and in the higher grade of funerals coachmen and coaches 
are draped. Funeral wreaths and flowers are hung upon the exterior of 
the hearse, upon leaving the church, and are left finally upon the grave 
or monument. The friends, the true mourners, always walk behind the 
hearse to a point beyond the area in which the tolling bell of the church 
is heard ; they then follow in omnibuses or coaches, to agree with the 
grade of the funeral. At Paris, and in all France, too, all males raise 


EUROPEAN METHODS. 


303 

the hat, and females make the sign of the cross when a funeral is passing. 
This is an invariable custom, whether the deceased be rich or poor, 
young or old. At Munich, all recently dead are taken to a large build¬ 
ing adjoining the cemetery and are placed in rooms and compartments, 
fitted up in different styles to suit the amount of money paid for the 
flowers, ‘mutes’ and other funeral expenses. Some bodies lie imbedded 
in flowers, others, the very poor, lying upon plain boards. All bear 
numbers corresponding to the ‘numbers and names of the dead, hung 
upon the entrance to the building. The bodies are clothed in funeral 
attire and are left in these rooms, cooled by ice for forty-eight hours. 
To the right-hand of each body is connected a hanging wire which com¬ 
municates with a bell in the office located in the room above. Should a 
corpse show signs of life, and by movement ring the bell, a watcher at 
once rushes to the rescue. The primary object of the above plan was to 
prevent the burial of the living, but it is now a settled form of procedure 
for all Munich. The building now has a church adjoining, and the 
cemetery being so near, no hearses are used, the ‘mutes’ carrying the 
coffin upon a stretcher-like bier. The cemetery at Munich is a gallery 
of art, of fine statues, busts and other sculptured work. At Vienna the 
cooperative burial business is carried out more uniformly than elsewhere. 
It seems to be the desire of the common folk to be buried well; that is, 
with ceremony. One woman, a shop-keeper, had paid into the society 
8,000 guilden (about $3,200), and her funeral was resplendent in 
‘mutes’ mourning coachmen, coaches, wreaths and flowers. 

“ Embalming is not practiced anywhere in Europe to the extent that it 
is in the United States. At Vienna post mortem examinations are com¬ 
monly made, and no attempt is made to inject the vessels. What the 
method of embalming is where the attempt is made, is jealously kept 
secret by the cooperative societies. Material for dissection in the medi¬ 
cal college is used fresh ; no preserved material being used. This is the 
practice, too, at Berlin. At Heidelberg anatomical material is preserved 
in 50 per cent alcohol, each body being sealed in a zinc-lined box filled 
with the alcohol. At Paris, the method of embalming is kept secret, and 
is rarely practiced, only with the rich. Anatomical material is preserved 
by means of solutions of zinc chloride, arsenic and corrosive sublimate, 
injected into the arteries. At the morgue, in Paris, where the unknown 
dead are exposed for three days to the public gaze, for the purpose of 
identification, the bodies are preserved by lowering the temperature by 
means of ice.” 

Later information from Paris states that in the Parisian medical 
schools, bodies are injected through the aorta, through a small opening 
made in the middle of the sternum, with a mixture of glycerine, carbolic 
acid and arseniate of soda which it is said, preserves the bodies admirably. 


304 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


ENGLISH PATENTS. 

Careful examination has been made of the records of all English pat¬ 
ents for the preservation of the dead since 1838; and while they will be 
more fully detailed under the appropriate section of formulae, etc., the 
more important of them will be briefly alluded to here, although none 
of them have attained that popularity their inventors desired. 

1838. 

November 6 .—Luke Hebert took out letters patent (7856) for the 
preservation of corpses by means of arterial injection of a solution con¬ 
taining acetate and sulphate of alumina, to which was added one-twen¬ 
tieth part of arsenious acid. After embalming, the corpse was dressed 
in clothing saturated with a mixture of various preservative and aromatic 
liquids, and wrapped in oil skin. 

1851. 

Le Comte de Fontaine Moreau describes a process of using sulphate 
of zinc for injections, and also the same substance combined with 
emollients for the cure of gangrenous wounds and similar external 
diseases (No. 13,739). 

(No. 2,060). A French chemist, Pierre Baboeuf, patents an in¬ 
vention for embalming bodies, preserving skins and the coloring of 
silk, wool, bone, feathers, etc., as well as for the destruction of insects 
and the preservation of animal and vegetable life from insects and ani- 
malculas. He employed for this purpose vegetable and mineral oils, oils 
containing saponifiable acid, etc. The intestines were removed from the 
body, and the cavity filled with hemp saturated with essential oils. Or 
the body was to be immersed for 48 hours in a solution of alkaline phe- 
nates (carbolates). 

1859. 

(No. 1708). Zephirin Orioli obtained letters patent for the appli¬ 
cation of hypochloride of alumina to preserving and embalming bodies, 
as being an antiseptic having the power to destroy the fermenting 
matters present. 

1863. 

(No. 909). Henry R. Spicer claimed as an inventor the employ¬ 
ment of glass for the manufacture of boxes or cases for preserving human 
remains; and specified as advantages that such boxes might be hermet¬ 
ically sealed, and they were therefore free from all emission of effluvia; 
that the material was durable, economical and portable. 

In 1863 (No. 412) Mr. Morgan of Dublin describes his method for 
embalming. The sternum is to be cut down the center. The pericar¬ 
dium is to be opened so as to expose the surface of the heart. An 
incision is then made in the left ventricle, or in the aorta, and a pipe 
about eight inches long introduced into the heart, and connected with 


ENGLISH PATENTS. 


305 


tubing about fifteen feet long, which is joined at the further end with a 
vessel for fluid, raised about twelve feet above the subject. The tip of. 
the right auricular appendix is then to he cut off; half a gallon of Satu¬ 
rated solution of common salt, containing also four ounces of niter 
dissolved in it, is to be introduced into the raised vessel referred to, and 
then allowed to rush through the circulatory system. When the fluid 
has ceased running from the incision in the right auricular appendix, 
put on a clamp, or otherwise seal or close it. A solution of salt, niter, 
alum and arseniate of potash is then put into the vessel and allowed to 
run into the subject for a few minutes. It is claimed that this process 
will keep bodies for a considerable time. 

1804. 

(No. 926). Audigier, a chemist of Marseilles, patents a process 
consisting in the application of a composition of wood powder, nitric 
acid, marine or bay salt, and essence of lavender and thyme. He takes 
about forty-four pounds of this powder and spreads it all about the body. 
Thirty-one and one-half ounces of a liquid composed of nitric acid, 
marine salt and crystallized sulphate of zinc is introduced into the mouth 
under the tongue. It is claimed that mummification will take place in 
less than a year. 

1866. 

(No. 642). Victor Larnarides patents the following enbalming, 
purifying and preservative fluid: Consisting of water, sulphate of zinc 
and copper (See formula No. 54). 

Robert Lake the same year patents (No. 1,044) the use of antiseptic 
gases for preserving the dead, also carbolic acid (No. 1,602). 

1867. 

(No. 1,850). Professor BrunettPs method. Page 301. 

The body is first washed internally and externally with water, and the 
blood is removed by injections of water in the excretory vessels and ducts, 
providing a suitable aperture for the escape of the water; the fat is then 
removed by the injection first of alcohol and then of sulphuric ether; 
the ether is then expelled by injections first of alcohol and then by con¬ 
tinued injections of water. For tanning the tissues, tannic acid is dis¬ 
solved in boiling distilled water, and injected into the arteries, veins or 
ducts. 

The subject is placed in an iron oven with double sides, in which is 
contained water at the boiling point, so as to raise the temperature in the 
oven to about 92° Centigrade. For applying internal heat, hot air is com¬ 
pressed by an air pump in a strong receiver made to communicate with 
the arteries, veins and ducts by means of india-rubber tubing, whereby 
the air is allowed to penetrate to the primitive tissues. The air is heated 
and dried before entering the body. 

20 


306 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


(No. 379). Lewis Spear uses an injection fluid composed of a solu¬ 
tion of sulphite of soda neutralized with sulphurous acid. 

1873. 

(No. 3,871). Dr. Lindemann patents an injection fluid composed 
of a saturated solution of boric acid in benzol, and the next year 
(1753) a solution of one part of boric acid, two parts of carbolic acid, and 
seven parts of water or alcohol colored with some carmine. 

1874. 

(No. 834). Napegyks invention consists in employing hydrate of 
methyl and the acetate of the oxide of ethyl for a bath in which the body 
is to be preserved. 

1876. 

(1,969). Robottom used borate of lime for dusting the surface of the 
body to be preserved. 

1877. 

(1,022). J. W. Drake, of Canada, patents a formula (See formula 
81) which, when being thoroughly injected renders, it is claimed, 
decomposition almost an impossibility. 

1878. 

(1,766). C. Laurent employes a mixture of three parts bicarbonate 
of soda to two parts of sugar. 

1879. 

(1,574). Wickershiemer claims that his mixture preserves bod¬ 
ies and combines flexibility and color of the parts. The following in¬ 
gredients are employed : Alum, salt, niter, potash, arsenious acid, gly¬ 
cerine and methyl-alcohol. 

1880. 

In 1880 (1,916), he adds salicylic acid as an ingredient (See details 
next page). 

1884. 

In 1884 (6,109), R. Strauss, of Germany, sets forth the nature of an 
invention for a new apparatus for preserving dead or supposed'dead bod¬ 
ies till burial, consisting of a receptacle, airtight except that it commu¬ 
nicates with an air opening from below, and has a lamp situated above 
in such a manner that its burning causes a movement of cooled air 
through the apparatus, which air is consumed by passing through the 
lamp mentioned. There is also an alarm attached to the supposed 
corpse whose least movement causes a bell to ring. 

French and German patents for this purpose are not accessible at the 
time of writing, but may be found in the appendix, with a single excep¬ 
tion, that of the famous Wickersheimer fluids mentioned under the 
English patents. WickersheimeLs specifications are given in full, to- 


wickersheimer's process. 


O/vrV 
OU 4 

gether with its claims, which have not been realized in the experience 
of the writer. 

To all whom it may concern : 

Be it known that I, Jean Wickerslieimer, of the city of Berlin, in the kingdom of 
Prussia, and German Empire, have invented a new and useful compound, the compo¬ 
sition of which, and the manner to use it are fully described and set forth in the fol¬ 
lowing specification : 

The invention relates to that class of compounds used to preserve dead human and 
animal bodies and vegetables; and its object is not only to protect these objects against 
putrefaction for a very long time, but to preserve their natural form and flexibility as 
well as their colors in perfection. 

To prepare my compound, dissolve first by weight, one hundred parts of alum, 
twenty-five parts of common salt, twelve parts of niter, sixty parts of potash, and ten 
parts of arsenious acid in three thousand parts of boiling water, and let the solution 
cool down and settle. Afterwards filter it. The result is a clear, colorless and odor¬ 
less liquid, which must react neither acid nor alkaline, but be neutral. Then take, by 
measure, four parts of glycerine and one part of methyl-alcohol, and mix with them 
ten parts of the fluid aforesaid. 

This mixture is my compound for preserving dead human and animal bodies and 
vegetables. 

To preserve anatomical prepaHitions, as skeletons with natural ligaments, cancers, 
beetles, and similar objects, which shall be kept afterwards in a dry state, they are 
put in the compound for about six to twelve days, according to their size and,volume, 
then removed from the compound and air-dried, after which treatment they are ready 
to be placed in the museum. 

They remain flexible for years, maybe forever, and can be made at any time to 
produce all the natural movements of the living object. 

Hollow objects—to-wit, lungs, bowels, or similar parts—are filled with the com¬ 
pound and put in the same for six to twelve days, after which time they are taken out 
of the compound, emptied and air-dried. 

It may be remarked here that it is advantageous to inflate such hollow prepara¬ 
tions, especially bowels, previous to their air-drying. 

Lizards, snakes, and similar objects, also vegetables, are preserved by keeping 
them submerged in the compound, as the main object commonly is the preservation 
of their color. Otherwise they are air-dried after six to twelve days’ impregnation 
with the compound. 

To preserve dead human or animal bodies, be it for scientific purposes or for 
embalming the former, the compound is forced by a syringe into an artery, in which 
is made, for that purpose, an incision to receive the mouth of the syringe. 

The quantity of compound to be applied varies from about one and one-half 
quarts to five quarts and more, according to the volume of the body to be treated. 

The injection should be made as soon after death as possible, as it indeed 
excludes and stops putrefaction, but cannot restore already destroyed organic for¬ 
mations. 

Bodies treated with my compound will show for years the flesh, the muscles, the 
tissues, even the soft parts, perfectly, in the same state as they were in when injected. 

In case of embalming it is advisable to rub the whole corpse on the outside with 
the compound after the injection is made, or after the impregnation, if such is pre¬ 
ferred, and to inclose it in an air tight vessel or coffin. Not only the form of the 
dead will then be preserved, but the epidermis will also retain its natural color. 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


I know very well that single ingredients of my compound have been tried for 
similar purposes: but all these previous attempts have, so far as I am aware, failed 
to produce the preservation of the bodies, combined with the flexibility and color of 
their parts. 

I claim as my invention: 

1. A compound for preserving, consisting of glycerine, methyl-alcohol, and a 
solution of mineral antiseptics, in which alum is the chief ingredient, substantially as 
described. 

2. A preservative compound, consisting of glycerine, methyl-alcohol, and a 
solution of alum, salt, niter, potash and arsenious acid, substantially as, and in the 
proportions specified. 

This specification signed by me this 5th day of April, 1879. 

Jean Wickersheimer. 


AMERICAN PATENTS. 

About fifty patents have been issued by the United States Patent 
Office since 1858 for embalming and preserving organic matter. They 
mainly are designed for use in the curing of meats, as will be seen by the 
following chronological list * 

1858. 

November SO. —No. 22,185 to N. B. Marsh for preserving meat. 

1861. 

September 10 .—No. 32,228 to J. C. Adams for improvements in meat 
curing apparatus. 

1872. 

August 6. —No. 130,232 to J. A. Mitchell, for improvements in pre¬ 
serving dead bodies. (By means of tight ice chest and antiseptic vapors 
of alcohol, sulphuric ether, carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, arsenic and 
chloroform.) 

1874. 

February 2J —No. 147,984 to G. W. Scollay, for improvements in 
preserving meat and animal matter. (By means of carbonic oxide and 
sulphurous acid gas and a solution of the sulphites of the alkalies, or 
their borates or biborates.) 

June 9.— No. 151,692 to F. W. Fox, for improvement in apparatus 
for injecting brine into meat. 

October 20.— No. 156,051 to Thos. H. Whitehouse, for improvements 
in embalming or preserving dead bodies. (By means of charcoal, sulphate 
of iron, permanganate of potassa. See formula, 13.) 

December 8. —No. 157,446 to Jas. F. Gyles, for improvement in process 
of preserving meat. (By means of smoke and brine and an air-tight re¬ 
ceptacle. ) 

1876. 

February 29. —No. 174,071 to Henry Galulliam, for improvement in 


AMERICAN PATENTS. 


309 

process oi preserving meats. (By means of 4 to 5 per cent of acetate of 
soda.) 

February 29. —No. 174,085 to Geo. T. Parker, for improvement in 
embalming apparatus. 

November 7. —No. 184,134 to John C. Howard, for improvement in 
process of preserving meats. (By means of salicylic acid and glycerine.) 

1877. 

March 6. —No. 187,956 to C. G. AmEnde, for improvement in com¬ 
position for preserving. (By means of powdered boracic acid and chlor¬ 
oform or chloral hydrate.) 

March 6. —No. 188,093 to Fred. S. Bartf, for improvement in pre¬ 
serving animal and vegetable substances. (By means of the hydrated 
lower oxides of manganese and iron, etc.) 

August 28. —No. 194,550 to John Eckart, for improvement in pre¬ 
serving flesh and fish by salicylic acid. 

August 28. —No. 194,569 to John L. Alberger, for improvement in 
process for preserving flesh. (By means of saline injection containing 
also carbolic or salicylic acid.) 

October 2 .—No. 195,758 to Geo. L. Gray, for improvement in process 
of curing meats. (By continuous flow of pickle over them). 

1878. 

March 19 .—No. 201,344 to Edward Gorges, for improvement in 
powders for curing meats. (See formula No. 132.) 

April 30. —No. 203,033 to Albert H. Hatch, for improvement in ap¬ 
paratus for embalming. 

July 23. —No. 206,343 to Richard J. McGowan, for improvements 
in embalming compositions. (See formula, No. 137.) 

August 27 .—No. 207,551 to Samuel Rodgers, for improvements in 
tubular needles for embalming. 

1879. 

July 22. —No. 217,779 to James M. Dillon, for improvement in 
processes for preserving meats. (By means of ordinary salt impregnated 
with smoke.) 

November 11 .—No. 221,541 to Lozengo Fagersten, for improve¬ 
ment in processes for preventing mold upon meats. (By means of a hot 
solution of boracic acid.) 

December 9. —No. 222,521 to Jas. H. and Henry B. McCarty, for 
improvement in fluids for embalming. (See formula, No. 1389.) 

1880. 

March 30. —No. 226,136 to Henry Warden, for process for preserv¬ 
ing meats. (By means of arterial injection of cold, blood-warm, or hot 
pickle until it escapes clear from the venae cavas and then follow by injec¬ 
tions in the same manner of air or oxygen gas.) 


310 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


May 18. —No. 227,654 to Samuel Rodgers, specifications in embalm¬ 
ing process. (Viz.: injection by means of hollow needle at the umbili¬ 
cus and into the brain cavity through the nose with making other inci¬ 
sions.) 

May 25. —No. 228,016 to Filippo Artimini, for compound for pre¬ 
serving meat. (See formula, No. 141.) 

June S .— No. 228,519 to Peter C. Doremus, for process and com¬ 
pound for embalming and preserving animal substances. (By means of 
saltpeter water impregnated with sulphurous acid gas.) 

August 81. —No. 231,807 to Richard Jones, for process for preserving 
meat. (By means of arterial injections of a solution of boracic acid, 
13^ oz. to gallon boiling water.) 

.November 16. —No. 234,567 to Julius Hauff, for compound for pre¬ 
serving animal and vegetable substances. (By means of a dry preserv¬ 
ing compound consisting of a salt formed by the chemical union of 
borax and boric acid.) 

November 80. —No. 234,844 to Wm. Archdeacon, for compound for 
preserving meats. (By means of salt and pyroligneous and salicylic 
acids.) 

1882. 

January 8 .—No. 251,772 to John Eckart for compound for preserv¬ 
ing meats, etc. (See formula. No. 142.) 

May 16 .—No. 258,001 to Frederick S. Bartf, for preserving com¬ 
pound. (See boro-glycerine.) 

November 21. —No. 267,684 to Anderson Fowler, for method of pre¬ 
serving meats. (By means of an electrolytic circuit.) 

November 28. —No. 268,094 to Wm. F. Grier, for preservative for 
organic substances. (Viz.: 1,116 parts of boracic acid to 382 parts by 
weight of prismatic borax, heated together until water is evolved and 
then dried in a current of hot air.) 

1883. 

August 2If. —No. 276,246 to James Howard for composition for pre¬ 
serving food, etc. (By means of a boro-phosphate of soda, viz.: 5 parts 
by weight of boracic acid to 1 part of phosphate of soda.) 

1884. 

June 21f .—No. 300,989 to Arthur S. Lovett, for apparatus for 
embalming. (A flexible gas-tight case, and means for supplying and 
expelling gas from said case.) 

1885. 

April 7. —Ao. 315,272 to Chas. A\. Gath, for device for embalming. 

© 

(Corpse-supporting board, arm-rest, pump-clasp, etc.) 

May 12 .—No. 317,703 to Wm. T. Baker, etc., for apparatus for em¬ 
balming. (Essentially a flexible, gas tight cover, bellows, pump, etc.) 



AMERICAN PATENTS. 


•> « 1 
Oil 


July 21. —Xo. 322,541 to James Jackson, for device for embalming. 
(A salt-injecting instrument with piston in hollow blade, etc.) 

October 20. —Xo. 328,577 to Porter Ensworth, for embalming appa¬ 
ratus. (Improvements on 317,703.) 

October 27. —Xo. 329,140 to Joseph H. Clarke, for arm-rest for em¬ 


balming tables. 


1880. 


♦ May 9. —Xo. 337,707 to Harvey N. Siegenthater, etc., for embalming 
syringe. 

The above comprises the list of American patents on this subject to 
date, and are published not so much for their real value as for informa¬ 
tion to those purposing patenting some device pertaining to the funeral 
directors art. 


PRESERVATION OF ANATOMICAL MATERIAL. 

One other department of this subject deserves our attention 
briefly and that is the preservation of bodies for anatomical uses. The 
requirements of medical colleges are not as exacting as those of private 
life, for a life-like appearance is not sought, but simply the preserva¬ 
tion of material in proper shape for dissection. In order to find how 
this was best accomplished circular letters were sent to all the leading 
medical colleges of the United States, and the following replies received. 

Albany Medical College: “ We use chloride of zinc solution for in¬ 
jection, and immerse the bodies in brine.” 

Atlanta Medical College: “Have found a saturated solution of 
arseniate of sodium the cheapest, most convenient, and best of all.” 

Bellevue Medical College: “We inject our bodies first with a satu¬ 
rated solution of arseniate of sodium, and then with a mixture of plaster 
of Paris and lead, and preserve during the summer in a large refrigerator. 

Buffalo University: “We inject through the femoral artery of the 
right side about 4 ounces of arsenious acid, and 6 of soda carbonate, 
(Formula 142), and two days later give a second injection through the 
same incision, of 2 parts of tallow and 1 of lard, colored with red 
aniline. During the summer the bodies are preserved in a large tank 
with simple brine.” 

Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery: “Always used chloride 
of zinc as an injection, having found it more convenient, if not better 
than other agents.” 

Chicago College Physicians and Surgeons: “Employ RudingeFs 
fluid (Formula 144), and then place in 65 per cent alcohol pickle; but are 
about to return to the freezing plan.” 

Chicago Medical College: “Use a saturated solution of arseniate 
of sodium for arterial injection, and keep in a chill room where temper¬ 
ature is kept constantly below 30 u Fahrenheit.” 


312 


MODERN EMBALMING ANI) ITS METHODS. 


Cleveland Medical College : “ We use simply a solution of arsenic 

and soda (Formula 145.) for injecting, and then place the cadaver in a 
pickle made of a saturated solution of rock salt. " 

Columbus Medical College: “Inject through the carotid, while the 
body is floating in water, a saturated solution of arsenite of soda by grav¬ 
ity only, and then the cadaver is placed in strong brine.” 

Georgetown University: “Have found ample satisfaction in the use 
of one ounce of chloride of zinc to the gallon of water, injecting through 
the left carotid several hours before introducing the plaster colored with 
one of the dyes. 

Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia: “Have found none 
equal to the solution of zinc chloride, injected in hot solution (1 to 24) 
by the aorta.” 

Homeopathic Medical College of Missouri: “Use about one-half 
pound of chloral hydrate for the injection of each body.” 

Indianapolis Medical College: “Use equal weights of bicarb of soda 
and crude arsenic (2^ lbs.) in water (3 gallons) boiled for an hour or 
more, and it has given satisfaction.” 

Iowa State University: “Inject each subject with about 3 
quarts of our preservative containing equal parts of white arsenic and 
carbonate of soda, and we try to get % 15 ounces of arsenic and soda 
into each subject and keep in the refrigerator until needed.” 

Jefferson Medical College: “ Inject our subjects through the thoracic 
aorta with equal parts of neutral chloride of zinc and water, and fill the 
vessels to repletion. In the summer season after the body is injected it ■■ 
is immersed in a saturated solution of salt and water, and kept there 
until needed.” 

Kansas City Medical College: “Always use a solution of bichloride 
of mercury and have gotten splendid results from it. (Formula 146.) 

Kentucky School of Medicine: “Arseniate of soda is the only chem¬ 
ical used for years.” 

Keokuk Medical College: “We use neutral chloride of zinc and in¬ 
ject while hot. Also use more often the arseniate of sodium and crystal¬ 
lized carbonate of sodium. (Formula 147.) 

Long Island Medical College: “Inject into the carotid artery by 
hydrostatic pressure a hot saturated solution of arseniate of soda, open¬ 
ing the jugular vein; at the least sign of decomposition we place them 
in brine until needed, but it is rarely needed.” 

Louisville Medical College: “Have used arseniate of soda and chlo¬ 
ride of zinc, and like the zinc best.” (1-4.) 

Rush Medical College: “Uses KademacheFs Fluid (Formula 148.) 
and chill room.” 

Medical College of Ohio: “Use chloride of zinc solution prepared by 


PRESERVATION OF MATERIAL. 


313 


throwing scrap zinc into commercial muriatic acid so long as the zinc 
dissolves. This we dilute J, -j, or f, as the case may require, generally 
the 4 strength. 

Medical College of Virginia: “ Each subject is injected, through the 
common carotid, with spirits or water containing one-half pound of 
chloral. The same solution is thrown into the rectum and stomach, and 
the body is then washed with a solution of chloral, and is then ready for 
the tank, which contains a saturated solution of common salt, and about 
one pound of saltpeter/* 

Michigan Medical College: “We use an arsenic and bicarbonate of 
soda solution containing carbolic acid, and also one of saltpeter, brown 
sugar and alcohol. (Formulae 149, 150.) 

Michigan State University: “ Use a saturated solution of arseniate of 
sodium, the quantity varying from two to three gallons, and throw into 
brine until used. Bodies for private dissection are injected with Wick- 
ersheimeFs fluid.” (Formula 100). 

Missouri Medical College: “Uses a refrigerator, and injects its bod¬ 
ies with a solution of arseniate of soda and glycerine.” 

Portland Medical College: “Injects first a warm, saturated solution 
of coarse salt, throwing in all that can be done with a reasonable amount 
of force. Then a solution of arsenious acid and carbonate of soda in 
hot water (Formula 149) is injected ; and have also used two ounces of 
glycerite of carbolic acid or two quarts of alcohol with good success.” 

St. Louis Medical College: “We are using for this year, to see how 
it acts, previously having used chloral hydrate, a solution of arsenious 
acid, carbonate of sodium and carbolic acid (eight ounces each of the 
first and two of the last to the gallon.) ” 

St. Louis College of Physicians and Surgeons: “We find nothing 
equal to a saturated solution of the arsenite of soda. Two injections are 
made with an interval of twelve hours between.” 

University of Louisville: “Use as an embalming fluid a saturated 
solution of arseniate of soda, and after embalming put in a refrigerator, 
in which the temperature is kept at about 30° to 32° F.” 

University of Maryland: “Have settled on arsenic as the most 
satisfactory material to use in preserving our subjects * * * a hand¬ 

ful of salt is suspended in boiling water, and this while hot as possible 
is injected into the aorta, * * * and repeated until the solution 

returns clear through an opening made in the vena cava. '* 

University of Neiv York: “Material for the dissecting-room is 
injected with a solution of chloride of zinc, and kept in tanks filled 
with a solution of salt in water.” 

University of Pennsylvania: “Depend entirely upon the neutral 
solution of chloride of zinc for the preservation of anatomical material. 


314 


MODERN EMBALMING AND ITS METHODS. 


After thorough injection, the bodies are placed in tanks filled with a 
saturated solution of common salt. In winter use arsenic injections.” 

University of Vermont: “Use Formula 148, injected into the arte¬ 
ries, and like it very much, as it preserves the natural color of the tissues.” 

University of Tennessee: “Have been constantly using a fluid com¬ 
posed of arsenious acid, chloride of zinc, permanganate of potash, and 
hydrate of chloral.” 



SECTION VI. 


150 


SELECTED FORMULA ANTISEPTICS, DISINFECTANTS, 


AND 


INJECTION FLUIDS. 


315 






SECTION VI. 


FORMULAE FOR ANTISEPTIC AND PRESERVATIVE FLUIDS. 


1. PREPARATION OF KYPHI. 


The earliest disinfectant of which we have any account is one men¬ 
tioned in the Papyrus Ebers, which was written 1552 B. C. It is called 
“the preparation of Kyphi, to make agreeable the odor of the house or 
dresses: dry myrrh, juniper berries, olibanum, mastic twigs, fenugreek 
seeds, raisins, * * * * * * * * 

Also use them as pastiles to make agreeable the odor of the mouth 

Clias. Rice. 

2. riquet\s liquid balm. 


* 


* 




Piquet’s liquid balm, which was used to preserve the body of 
Madame La Dauphine, consisted of turpentine, styrax, balsam copaiba 
and Peru. 


3. BALM WHICH WAS MADE FOR MADAME LA DAUPHINE. 


Florence iris root - - 

Rush ------- 

Bohemian angelica root, ginger, aromatic calamus, aristolochia, 
of each ------- 

Imperatoria, gentian, valerian, of each 

Balmgentle leaves, basilic, of each - - - - 

Savory, sage, thyme, of each ----- 
Hyssop, laurel, myrrh, marjory, origan, rhue, of each - 
Southern wood, absynth, mint, calamint, wild thyme, odorifer¬ 
ous rush, scordium, of each - - - - 

Orange flowers 

Lavender ------- 

Rosemary ------ 

Coriander seed ------ 

Cardamum seed - - • 

Cumin, carraway ------ 


3 lbs. 

ij_ 

J 2 

1 “ 

JL a 
2 

11 ff 

1 2 

1 “ 

1 a 

2 

4 OZ. 
lbs. 

4 oz. 
1 lb. 

l “ 
4 oz. 


317 




318 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


Fruit, and seeds of the juniper - 

Cloves - 

Nutmeg - 

White pepper - 

Dried oranges - 

Cedar wood - 

Santal citron, roses, of each 

Citron and orange peel, canella, of each 

Styrax, calamite, benzoin, olibanum, of each 

Myrrh ----- 

Sandarac ----- 

Aloes ----- 

Spirits of wine - - - - 

Salt ----- 

Venice turpentine - - - 

Fluid styrax - 

Balsam of Copaiba - - - 

Balsam of Peru 

Cere-cloth ----- 


4. WORTMAN’S FORMULA. 



- 1 

lb 

- 


(( 


- l 

(( 

- 

4 

oz, 


3 lbs, 


Q 

6 

(( 


- 2 

a 

- 

i 

"2 

i i 


- H 

a 

- 

24 

a 


1 

( c 

- 

4 

a 


- 4 

(( 

- 

4 

OZ, 


3 lbs, 

- 

2 



i 

"T 

4 C 

- 

2 

OZ 


Riquet. 


Saturated solution of chloride of zinc (about equal portions chlo¬ 
ride and water) - - - - - -2 qts. 

4- oz. corrosive sublimate in water - - - - 2 “ 

% oz. carbolic acid crystals in water - - - 2 “ 

Wash the vessels first with water, and inject the six-quart mixture, 
preferably by the carotid artery, both upward and downward. 


5. MORRELL’S ANTISEPTIC LIQUID. 

Arsenious acid, 14 parts. 

Caustic soda, 7 “ 

Water, 20 “ 

Carbolic acid in sufficient quantity to make fluid opalescent, after 
which add water to make 100 parts. 


6. MULLEN’S PRESERVING FLUID. 

Bichromate of potash, 2 to 2£ parts. 
Sulphate of sodium, 1 “ 

Water to 100 “ 

7. sovereign fluid, Cincinnati, O. 

Chloride potash, 18 ounces. 

Alum powdered, 24 “ 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


319 


Arsenic solution, 

12 ounces. 

Chloride zinc, 

9 

Corrosive sublimate, 

3 

Alcohol, 

30 

Water, 

4^- gallons. 

8. AN ITALIAN FORMULA. 

Boiling water, 

• 

1 gallon. 


Arsenic, 

Cologne water, 
Alcohol, 

Chloride of zinc, 


2 ounces. 
^ gallon. 


a 


6 ounces. 


9. DR. PETRIE'S FORMULA. 

Cologne spirits, 1 gallon. 

Carbolic acid, 6 ounces. 

Corrosive sublimate; 40 grains. 

10. FORMULA. 

Hydrate chloral, 2 ounces. 
Glycerine, 2 “ 

Distilled water, 1 “ 


11. DR. WYWODZOFF'S FORMULA, NO. 1. 

Thymolis, 2 scruples. 

GHcerine, 4 pounds. 

W ater, 2 


(( 


12. DR. wywodzoff's formula, no. 2. 
Salicylic acid, 2 drachms. 


Borax, 

Gum arabic. 
Water, 




2 

1 ounce. 
11 “ 


13. wiiitehouse's patent embalmer. 

Pulverized charcoal, 4 ounces. 

Sulphate of iron, 1 “ 

Permanganate of potassa, 2 “ 

Mix with distilled water to about the consistency of cream. 

The exposed parts to be coated with the following compound: 

Spirits of ammonia, 3 parts. 

Carbolic acid, 2 “ 

Tincture of iodine, 7 “ 


320 


SELECTED FORMULA. 


14. FORMULA. 

Acetate alumina, 1 pound. 

Corrosive sublimate, 2 ounces. 

Dissolved in one gallon of water. 

15. LIQUOR OF SIR S. SMITH. 

» 

Corrosive sublimate, 2 drachms. 

Camphor, ■ 2 oz. 

Spirits of wine, 1 lb. 

16. BITTER SPIRITUOUS LIQUOR. 

White Soap, 1 oz. 

Camphor, 2 “ 

Colocynth, 2 “ 

Spirits of wine, 2 lb. 

17. Nicholas’ liquor. 

Very pure water; 2 lb. 

Alcohol, 1 “ 

Sulphate of Alumina, 6 oz. 

18. GEORGE GRAVES’ LIQUOR. 

Alum, 8 oz. 

Common water, 1 lb. 

Alcohol, y “ 

The following is the method of preparing this mixture: The alum 
is pulverized and put into a vessel capable of resisting heat; water being 
heated to ebullition is poured upon the alum; when cool, it is to be fil¬ 
tered through gray paper, and then mixed with alcohol. 


19. ABBE MANESSE’S FLUID. 

Alum, 

1 lb. 

Nitre, 

1 “ 

Sea salt, 

1 “ 

Common water, 

4 “ 

Alcohol, 

1 “ 

20. renouard’s 

NO. 3. 

Acetate alumina, 

1 lb. 

Sulphate iron, 

4 oz. 

Corrosive sublimate, 

2 “ 

Water, 

1 gal. 


SELECTED FORMULA. 


321 


21. DURANT'S bleacher. 

Hyposulphite soda, 12 oz. 

Sulphuric acid; 6 “ 

Water, 1 gal 

Acid sets free hyposulphurous which bleaches. 


22. renouard's best injection. 


Alcohol, 1 gal. 

Corrosive sublimate, 8 oz. 

Then add two pounds creosote. Makes white mark. Use carefully. 

23. EMBALMING FLUID. 


Corrosive Sublimate, 2 ounces. 

Chloride Zinc, 3 “ 

Alcohol, ^ gallon. 

Dissolve the first ingredients in the alcohol then add 

Pyroligneous Acid, \ gallon. 

Creosote, 4 ounces. 

For use on Internal Organs. 


Renouard. 


24. RENOUARD'S EMBALMING FLUID, NO. 2. 


Corrosive Sublimate, 2 ounces. 

Chloride Zinc, 4 “ 

Creosote, 4 “ 

Alcohol, 1 gallon. 

Dissolve Corrosive Sublimate and Chloride of Zinc first in the 
Alcohol, and then add Creosote. 


25. worth's fluid. 

Arsenious Acid, 3 ounces. 

Carbonate of Soda, 4 “ 

Water, 3 quarts. 

Dissolve in a porcelain vessel the arsenious acid and soda in hot water, 
and after solution, let the liquid cool off; then add enough water to make 
up a gallon. In the making and using of this preparation, great care 
should be exercised, as it must be borne in mind that arsenious acid is a 
violent poison. 

20. DR. ROSWELL PARK'S FLUID. 


Brown Sugar, 2 parts. 

Nitre, 1 “ 

Methylic Alcohol, 1 “ 

Glycerine, 10 “ 


21 


322 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


27. w. w. keen's chloral solution. 

Chloral Hydrate, 3 to 5 pounds. 

Water, 6 to 8 “ 

28. CAMPHORATED ACETIC ACID. 

Camphor, \ ounce. 

Acetic Acid, ounces. 

Dissolve the camphor with the aid of a little alcohol and then add the 
acetic acid. 

To remove fetid odors. 

A. Renouard. 

29. gannal’s fluid. 

Sulphate of Alumina, 4 pounds. 

Arsenious Acid, 4 ounces. 

Creosote, 4 “ 

Water, 1 gallon. 

Use transparent arsenic, heat the water to 55 C. and dissolve the 
arsenic first, then add the alumina and last of all the creosote. 

30. renouard's fluid for local use. 

Alum, 8 ounces. 

Corrosive Sublimate, 2 “ 

Water, 1 gallon. 

Should be diluted one-half with water for use with children or persons 
with a thin skin. It should be kept from a strong light in dark glass 
bottles, and when used should never be mixed in a metallic vessel, but 
in a china dish. 

31. BEFORE embalming. 

Sulphate alumina, 2 pounds. 

Corrosive sublimate, 2 ounces. 

Water, 1 gallon. 

Apply to surface of body and allow to evaporate. 

Renouard . 

32. aromatic vinegar to cover disagreeable odors. 

Camphor, 2 ounces. 

Alcohol, Sufficient to dissolve. 

Oil of cloves, 1 ounce. 

Acetic Acid ; very strong, 12 ounces. 


Renouard . 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


Q O C 


33. MODIFIED GANNAL’S FLUID. 

Snip, alumina, 6 pounds. 

Transparent arsenic, 4 ounces. 

Creosote, G ounces. 

Water, 1 gallon. 

Especially adapted for fleshy people and for use in hot weather. 

Renouarcl. 

34. pacinPs fluid. 


Bichloride of mercury, 1 part. 

Chloride of iodine, 2 parts. 

Glycerine, 13 parts. 

Distilled water, 113 parts. 

Let the liquid rest for two months, then add three more parts of 
distilled water and filter. 


35. LATUR’S PRESERVATIVE FOR ANATOMICAL SPECIMENS. 

Iodine, 5 parts. 

Tartar emetic, 6 parts. 

Distilled water, 500 parts. 

Bromine may be substituted for iodine. 

36. MOULLARDI’S PREPARATION. 

Immerse the object for two weeks in the following solution : 

Corrosive sublimate, 2 parts. 

Glycerine, 20 parts. 

Drain until dry and extend on the whole a coat of varnish. 


37. A SUBSTITUTE FOR ALCOHOL IN PRESERVING NATURAL HISTORY 

SPECIMENS. 

Phenic acid, 1 ounce. 

Distilled water, 50 ounces. 


38. FORMULA. 

Common water, 5 lbs. 

Alum, 1 lb. 

Sea-salt, ^ lb. 

Bath employed by naturalists. 

39. TANNING LIQUOR. 

Tan, or oak bark, 1 lb. 

Powdered alum, 4 ounces. 

Common water, 20 lbs. 


324 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


40. ABBE MANESSE'S LOTION. 


Alum, 1 lb. 

Sea-salt, 2 oz. 

Cream of tartar, 1 oz. 

Common water, 4 lbs. 

Employed externally as a lotion. 


41. INJECTING FLUID. 


Salt, 

Alum, 

Corrosive sublimate, 
Water, 


4 ' ounces. 
2 

2 grains. 

1 quart. 


42. FOR PRESERVING SPECIMENS OF MYOLOGY. 
Brown sugar, 5 ounces. 

Common salt, 10 “ 

Nitrate of potassa 7-j- “ 

Distilled water, ^ gallon. 

This preparation preserves the color of the muscles. 

• 

43. van vetter's preparation. 
Glycerine, 1 pint. 

Brown sugar, 2 ounces. 

Saltpeter, 2 “ 

Distilled water, ^ gallon. 


After cooling add 


44. heidmer’s fluid. 


Arsenic, 


5 oz. 

Alum, 


1 lb. 

Saltpetre, 


1 “ 

Boiling water, 


2 gals. 

Sulphate zinc. 


1 lb. 

Alcohol, 


1 gal. 

45. VIVODTSEF 

's SOLUTION. 

Thymol, 

5 

parts. 

Alcohol, 

45 

(( 

Glycerine, 

2160 

<( 

Water, 

1080 

a 


46. renouard’s fluid no. 4. 

Dissolve in 1 gallon of water as much alum as it will take up, then 
filter or pour off clear liquid and add to it 2 ounces chloride of zinc and 
2 ounces corrosive sublimate. Keep cool and do not put in metallic ves¬ 
sels, and may add, in warm weather, 

Creosote, 1 ounce to the gallon. 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


325 


47. renouard's no. 5. 

1 wo pints of water at 50° F.; add chloride of zinc until the fluid is 
unable to dissolve more, then add 1 pint of water and 2 pints of methy¬ 
lated spirit. 

48. FOR LOCAL USE. 

Alum*, 8 ounces. 

Corrosive sublimate, 2 “ 

Distilled water, 1 gallon. 

49. LECANU^S FLUID. 

Alcohol, 8 parts. 

Water, 8 <e 

Glycerine, 8 “ 

Carbolic acid, 6 “ 

50. INJECTING FLUID. 


Chloride of alumina, 2 pounds. 

“ sodium, 1 “ 

Corrosive sublimate, 4 ounces. 

Carbolic acid, 2 “ 

Water, 1 gallon. 


51. PRESERVATIVE FLUID. 


Corrosive sublimate, 

Carbolic acid —of each, 20 grams. 
Brandy, 2 litres. 


52. PROCESS OF DR. TRANCHINI. 

This process of embalming consists of injecting in the crural arte¬ 
ries one gallon and a half, or two gallons, according to circumstances, 
of the following solution: Two pounds of arsenic in ten pints of dis¬ 
tilled 'water, or in brandy. It is evident that a greater part of the 
arsenic injected is held in suspension in the liquid; for in the above 
preparations it can not be easily dissolved. According to the authority 
of different writers, bodies thus treated can be preserved indefinitely 
but they desiccate in a rather short time. 

53. iiomolle's solution. 

Sulphate of alumina is frequently employed for the preservation of 
bodies; but this salt being always acid, Dr. Homolle saturates its solution 
with oxide of zinc and thus obtains a compound forming a sulphate of 
zinc and alumina, which is employed with advantage for the purpose 
named. 


320 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


54. ANDIGIER’S PATENT—ENGLISH. 

Sulphate of zinc 264 lbs. 

“ ' “ copper 8 oz. 

Natural water . 100 lbs. 

55. DR. CARRA'S PROCESS. 

The venous system is emptied, and the arterial circulation filled with 
a solution of: 

Chloride of alumina 6 lbs. 

Corrosive sublimate 3 oz. 

t 

Distilled water 0 litres. 

The body is then immersed in the same solution for sixty days; and 
at the end of that period of time presents the phenomena of petri¬ 
faction. 

50. SUE VERNAS DISINFECTANT. 

The component parts of this solution are lime, chloride of mag¬ 
nesium, coal-tar and water. HausmaniTs experiments have shown that 
lime, of itself, is able to clarify the turbid contents of sewers, while it 
retards the development of infusoria and fungi until the tenth day. 
The strong ammoniacal smell which follows its use may be overcome by 
adding one part of the chloride of magnesium to ten parts of the lime. 
The development of the low microscopic organisms are retarded for a 
much longer time by the further addition of tar. 

57. THE INJECTION OF ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS. 

A. K. Bijeloussovv recommends (Archiv. f. Anatomie, November, 
1885) for this purpose a mixture of borax and gum arabic. The mass is 
injected cold, and is then fixed by immersion in spirits. By treating the 
preparation with glycerine the injection is rendered transparent; and it 
can be removed at any time by acting upon it with dilute acetic acid. 
The American Journal of the Medical Sciences, April, 188G. 

58. muscroft’s disinfectant. 

Dr. Muscroft, of Cincinnati, Ohio, recommends: 

A disinfecting fluid composed of 14 ounces of the bicarbonate of soda 
and one ounce of powdered alum, dissolved in water. He uses this mix¬ 
ture also for every kind of sloughing sores. 

59. laskowsky’s injection. 

Glycerine (28°), 1000 parts. 

Carbolic acid (crystals), 100 “ 

About five quarts to be used for an injection. 


SELECTED FORMULA. 


• >.) ry 

Orl i 


60. dorrault’s powder. 

Sawdust, 5 pounds. 

Sulphate of zinc in powder, 2 pounds. 

Essence of lavender, 8 oz. 

61. hyrtl’s solution. 

Acetate Alumina— 1 part 

Alcohol 35 per cent, 12 parts 

62. SOLUTION ALUMINA SULPHATE. 

Alumina sulphate—puriss, 60 parts 

Water 40 “ 

Zinc oxide, 6 “ 

Dissolve, filter and evaporate to density (38° Baume). 

63. SUCQUET’S SOLUTION. 

An aqueous solution of chloride of zince (40° Beaume) containing about 
35 per cent. For injection this is diluted with one-fifth volume water. 
About four quarts are injected via the popliteal artery and into the ab¬ 
domen. 

64. P>. W. RICHARDSON’S SOLUTION, NO 1. 

1. Chloride of zinc five parts and alcohol one part. The chloride 
is added to water at 50 Q F, to the point of saturation. A body of 100 
pounds weight would require about six pints of the mixture which should 
be already prepared before embalming begins. The transfusion should 
be rapid to prevent contraction of the blood vessels, which may occur 
from too long contact of the liquid with the arterial wells. The color of 
the body afterwards is almost pearly white. 

65. Richardson’s solution, 2. 

Chloride zinc 20 grains in styptic colloid 1 fluid ounce. 

66. Richardson’s solution, 3. 

Chloride zinc, 4 pounds. 

Glycerine, 1 pint. 

Water, 1 gallon. 

. 67. STRAL'S-DURKHEIM’S formula. 

Zinc sulphate, 14 parts. 

Water, 10 “ 

oi- 

Zinc sulphate. 

Water, 


1 part. 

2 “ 


328 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


68. SANTER^S INJECTING FLUID. 


Carbolic acid, 

1 

part. 

Glycerine, 

10 

(< 

Alcohol, 

50 

<< 

Water, 

40 

(< 


Of this 6 to 8 pints are necessary for injection. If desired to preserve 
for several months a second injection is required, viz. : 

69. SANTERS* STRONGER FLUID. 

Chloride zinc, 1 part. 

Water, 3 “ 

Added to 10 to 16 parts of fluid No. 1. 


70. seseman’s fluid. 


Arsenite of soda, 
Carbolic acid, 
Glycerine, 

W ater. 


2 parts. 
2 “ 
100 “ 

10 “ 


71. goadby’s solution. 


Chloride of sodium, 4 ounce. 

Alum, 2 “ 

Corrosive sublimate, 4 grains. 

In boiling water, 2 quarts. 

Filter well. 


72. FORMULA. 

Glycerine, 14 parts. 

Brown sugar, 2 “ 

Nitrate of Potash, 1 “ 

Dissolve and inject. 

73. HOWSE’S ARSENICAL GLYCERINE. 

» 

White arsenic, 1 pound. 

Glycerine, 2 pints. 

Heat the glycerine to dissolve the arsenic, and filter before using. 


74. packousky's solution. 

• 

* Glycerine, 100 parts. 

Acetate of soda, 2 “ 

Carbolic acid, 2 “ 

Sesemen recommends that the acetate be replaced by arsenite of soda, 
and 10 parts of water be added. 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


329 


75. platt’s chlorides. 

A saturated solution of the chlorides of the metallic salts combined 


in the following proportion: 

Chloride of zinc, 


40 per cert. 


<( 

lead, 

20 

(( 

a 

calcium. 

15 

a 

a 

aluminium. 

15 

a 

a 

magnesium, 

5 

(t 

(£ 

potassium, 

5 

(( 


76. INJECTING FLUID. 

Chloride of sodium, 4 parts. 

Nitrate of potassa, 1 “ 

White sugar, 2 “ 

Tepid water, 15 “ 

Dissolve. Wash out blood vessels Avith warm water before injection. 


77. dung’s solution. 

Ferrous sulphate, 5 ounces. 

Carbolic acid, 7 

Water, 1 gallon. 


78. SOLUTION RECOMMENDED BY FRENCH CODEX. 


Liquefied chloride of zinc, 1 part. 

Distilled water, 2 “ 

Dissolved and filtered. Density, 1.33 at 36° (Baume). A 5 per cent 
solution injected into the carotid will preserve temporarily. 


79. INJECTION FLUID. 


Alcohol, 

Corrosive sublimate, 
Chloride of zinc, 
Arsenic, 

Glycerine, 


1 gallon. 
4 ounces. 
1 

3 “ 

1 quart. 


80. BORO-GLYCERIDE. 

Ninety-two parts of inodorous glycerine are heated to about 150° C., 
and to this is added pure boric acid, crystallized twice to free from 
impurities, steam is driven off by the formation of water, and the mass 
loses Ayeight. 


330 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


81. DRAKE'S EMBALMING FLUID. ENGLISH PATENTS, 1877. NO. 1022. 



Pounds. 

Ounce. 

Nux vomica. 


1 

Alum, 

3 

0 

Salt, 


3 

Muriate of ammonia, 

1 

1 

Arsenic. 

9 

0 

Chloride of mercury, 

2 

0 

Camphor, 

1 

0 

Chloride of zinc, 


4 

The ingredients are to be pulverized separately, mixed together, and 
dissolved in a liquid (composed of three parts water to 1 jiart alcohol) in 


the proportions of l-^- gallons of liquid to every pound of chemicals. 


82. DE WESSLEY’S DISINFECTING SOLUTION. 


Ferrous chloride. 
Ferrous sulphate. 
Zinc chloride, 
Water 


25 oz. 

8 oz. 

15 oz. 

1 gallon. 


83. FARWELL'S DISINFECTANT. 

Ferrous sulphate, 17 oz. 

Carbolic acid, 5 oz. 

Water, 1 gallon. 

84. SIRET’S DISINFECTANT. 


Ferrous sulphate, 

Zinc sulphate, 

Tan or oak bark Qiowdered), 
Oil and tar, of each. 

To deodorize cesspools, privies, etc. 


20 parts. 
10 “ 

4 “ 

1 “ 


85. MONSELL’S DISINFECTANT. 

Ferric sulphate, 50 oz. 

Ferric nitrate, 21 oz. 

Water, 1 gallon. 


86. GIRONDIN DISINFECTANT. 


Zinc sulphate, 
Copper sulphate, 
Calcium sulphate, 
Water, 


33 oz. 

2 oz. 

1 oz. 

1 gallon. 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


381 


87. NEW YORK BOARD OF HEALTH. 

Zinc sulphate, 8 oz. 

Carbolic acid (crude), 1 oz. 

Warm water, 3 gallons. 

Recommend the above as an excellent disinfectant for the sick room. 


88. gee’s fragrant disinfectant. 

Rectified oil of turpentine, 1 part. 
Benzine, 7 parts. 

Oil of verbena, to each oz. 5 drops. 

89. SEELEY’S DISINFECTANT. 


Manganese sulphate, 17 oz. 

Ferric sulphate, 8' “ 

Sulphuric acid, 11 “ 

Hydrochloric acid, 2 “ 

Water, L gallon. 


90. UNITED STATES ARMY DISINFECTANT. 

Calverts No. 5 carbolic acid, 1 part. 

Ferrous sulphate (commercial), 20 parts. 

Water, all by weight, 100 “ 

In cases requiring the most energetic disinfection, ten parts of com¬ 
mercial zinc chloride is to be substituted for the ferrous sulphate. 

91. PHOENIX DISINFECTANT. 

Clay, 9 oz. 

Ferric chloride, 83 grs. 

Ferric oxide, 1 oz. 

Lime. -J t{ 

Carbolic acid, 20 grs. 

92. EGYPTIAN DISINFECTANT. 


Sand, 

Alumina, 

Lime, 

Carbolic acid 
Dead oil. 


11| oz. 

9i (C 

20 grains. 
22 


1 oz. 

93. SANITAS DISINFCTANT. 


Hydrogen peroxide, 
Camphoric acid, 

Turpentine, p. r. n. 


332 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


94. FORMULA 


Wood alcohol, 

2 gal. 

Carbolic acid, 

5 oz. 

Thymo-alcohol, 

1 “ 

or 


Thymol, dissolved in alcohol, 

1 oz. 

Gum camphor, 

5 “ 

Chloride of zinc or alumina, 

5 “ 

Corrosive sublimate, 

2 “ 

Glycerine or boro glycerine, 

2 pints. 

Water, to make 

5 galls. 


After six hours add the glycerine and the water. 


95. FORMULA 


oz. 

a 


White arsenic, 10 

Chloride sodium, 20 

Water (boiling). 3 pints. 

Muriatic acid, 50 oz. 

And all block zinc that it will take up or dissolve. Or 


Alcohol (Methyl will answer), 

14 pints. 

Corrosive sublimate, 

3 oz. 

Salicylic acid, 

4 “ 

Hydrate chloral. 

5 “ 

Thymol, 

1 “ 

Glycerine, 

3 pints. 


Both of the above are excellent as injecting fluids. 


96. CHLORINE DISINFECTANT. 


9 pounds. 


8 ± 

154- 


£ £ 


£( 


Black oxide of manganese, 

Common salt. 

Commercial sulphuric acid 
Water. • 36 pints. 

To be used in an earthen or lead pan. It should remain in the room 
from six to eight hours. On closing the doors and windows they should 
be well sealed. The best way is to paste strips of paper over all of the 
joints. After the room has been opened it should remain for at least 24 
hours with a good current of air running through it. This is sufficient 
for a room containing 1000 cubic feet. 


97. INJECTING FLUID. 

Oil of wintergreen, -j- oz. 

Glycerine, 1 gal. 


333 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


Hydrate of chloral, 

5 oz. 

Thymol, 

2 “ 

Corrosive sublimate, 

^ te 

Arsenious acid, 

4 “ 

Common salt. 

13 “ 

Hot water, 

2 gal. 

Alcohol, 

9 “ 

/V 

COLLINS* DISINFECTING POWDER. 


Dry chlorinated lime, 2 parts. 

Burnt alum, 1 “ 

Use either dry or slightly moistened with water. 


99. MARTINSON'S MODIFICATION OF WICKERSHEIMER*S FLUID. 


Borax, 

20 

oz. 

Potass, sulphate, 

8 

oz. 

“ carbonate, 

18i 

oz. 

Sodic chloride. 

10 

oz. 

“ nitrate. 

6 

oz. 

Arsenious acid, 

2 

oz. 

Glycerine, 

28 

pints. 

Alcohol, 

7 

pints. 

Water, 

72 

pints. 


Dissolve the arsenic and carbonate of potash in a part of the water by 
heat, and then add the other ingredients dissolved in the rest of the 
water. Cost, about $4.00 per gallon and dangerous. A body requires 
one-half its weight of fluid, and a gallon weighs from eight and one- 
half to ten pounds. 


100. MODIFIED WICKERSHEIMER*S 

FLUIDS BOTH FOR 

INJECTION AND 


IMMERSION. 



4 

For Injection. 

This Column 
for Immersion. 



Arsenious acid. 

16 grammes, 

12 grammes, 

or 

3 drachms. 

Sodic chloride. 

80 “ ' 

60 

(( 

2 oz. 

Potass, sulphate. 

200 

150 


5 oz. 

Potass, nitrate. 

25 

18 

a 

6 drachms. 

Potass, carbonate, 

20 

15 

i i 

q 1 << 

Water, 

10 litres, 

10 litres, 

l c 

20 pints. 

Glycerine, 

4 “ 

4 “ 

( ( 

8 “ 

Wood Naphtha, 

H “ 

3 ± “ 

(( 

1 a 

2 


101. STRONG DISINFECTANT. 


Chloride of lime, 
Sulphate of zinc, 


of each, 


2 drachms. 



334 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


Carbolic acid, ) 
Oil of eucalyptus, f 
Alcohol, 


of each, 


1 drachm. 

2 oz. 


Place the lime and sulphate of zinc in a half-gallon bottle. Mix 
together the carbolic acid, oil and alcohol*, add a quart of water and add 
to the salts. For ordinary use three ounces of this may be diluted with 
a quart of water. 

102. A CHEAP DISINFECTANT. 


Corrosive sublimate, 1 oz. 

Common salt, 5 oz. 

Warm water. 1 pint. 

Half an ounce of the above added to a gallon of water will make an 
efficient disinfectant. 


103. OZONE DISINFECTANT. 

Take of commercial sulphuric acid, free of arsenic, a suitable quan¬ 
tity, and place it in an open china vessel, and add gradually one-half or 
three-fourths of a teaspoonful of crude granulated permanganate of potas¬ 
sium. Brown residue mixed with water makes an excellent disinfectant. 


104. DISINFECTANT FOR ALYINE DISCHARGES. 

Copper sulphate, 8 oz. 

Water, 1 gallon. 

Sulphuric acid (commercial), 1 oz. 

105. FOR SAME PURPOSE. 


Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz. 

Muriate of ammonia, 1 oz. 

Water, 1 gallon. 

Nitro-muriatic acid, % oz. 

106. DISINFECTING POWDER. 


Corrosive sublimate, 2 parts. 

Carbolic acid (crystals), 5 “ 

Ferrous sulphate (air dried), 100 “ 


107. G. M. B., DISINFECTANT SOLUTION. 

Corrosive sublimate, 1 drachm. 

Copper sulphate, 1 ounce. 

Water, 1 pint. 

108. “solution no. 5." (disinfectant.) 
Corrosive sublimate, 4 oz. 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


Water, 1 gallon. 

Permanganate of potassium, 1 drachm. 

109. CHEAP DEODORIZER. 

(a) Nitrate of lead, 2 oz. 

Water, 1 pint. 

(b) Chloride of sodium, 8 oz. 

Water, 3 pints. 

Mix the two solutions, filter and add one pint of the filtrate to 8 gal¬ 
lons of water. 


110. SOLUTION" OF PERMANGANATE OF POTASSIUM. 

Potassium permanganate, 80 grs. 

Water, 1 pint. 

111. FOR ARTERIAL INJECTION. 

Chloride of sodium, 4 parts. 

Nitrate of potash, 1 part. 

White sugar, 2 parts. 

Tepid water, 15 “ 

112. dickson's fluid. 

Chloral hydrate, ) 

Soda sulphate, [ of each 10 S rs - 
Water, * 1 oz. 


113. tucker's fluid. 


Arseniate of soda, 
Carbolic acid. 
Glycerine, 

Water, 

Dissolve the arseniate in the water, 
erine, and then mix. 


10 oz. 

8 “ 

2 pints. 

5 gallons. 

and the carbolic acid in the glyc- 


114. hebert's injection. 


Solution of acetate of alumina, prepared by the decomposition of the 
sulphate with the acetate of lime, the solution to mark 28 degrees by 
Baume's hydrometer. To this is added one-twentieth part of arsenic 
acid before injecting it. English patents No. 7856. 


115. moreau's injection. 

Dissolve metallic zinc in water and sulphuric acid until the solution 
is of 30 to 40 degrees Baume. Decant and filter, and during injection 
add one-third part of oil of turpentine. Eyiglisli patents No. 13,789. 


i 


336 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


116. BABOEUF’S PRESERYATIYES. 

By the distillation of vegetable substances as peat, wood, etc., an oily 
tar is first produced, and then this is saponified with caustic soda, to re¬ 
move the saponifiable part. The supernatant unsaponifiable parts are 
utilized for preservative purposes by Baboeuf by soaking the substance in 
it and then exposing to the air, or by fumigation. For the preservation 
of the body a solution of the alkaline phenates (See phenic acid) of 6 to 
15 degrees is used either by immersion or injection. 

117. Morgan’s injection. 


Common salt, (Sat. sol.) 

1 gallon. 

Nitre, 

4 oz. 

or 


Saturated solution com. salt, 

1 gallon. 

Nitre, 

1 lb. 

Alum, 

1 lb. 

Arseniate of potash, 

1 oz. 

Oil of thyme, 

lt>- oz. 

Oil of wintergreen, 

y drachm. 


English patents, 1863, No. lf.12. 

118. LARNAUDES’ PRESERVING FLUID. 

Natural water, 100 lbs. 

Sulphate zinc, 264- lbs. 

Sulphate copper, 8 oz. 

English patents, 1860, No. 61$. 

119. AUDIGIER’s POWDER FOR EMBALMING. 

Wood dust or powder, 2 lbs., 2 ounces. 

Nitric acid at 36 degrees Baume, 2 lbs., 11 ounces. 

Marine or bay salt, 10-J ounces. 

Essences of lavender and thyme, 54- drachms. 

120. AUDIGIER’S LIQUID. 

Nitric acid at 40 degrees Baume saturated with salt, 24^- oz. 
Crystallized sulphate of zinc, . 7 oz. 

This liquid is introduced through the mouth, as described under 
English patents. English patents, 186b. No. 926. 

121. laurent’s mixture. 

Bicarbonate of soda, 60 parts. 

Sugar, 40 “ 

Dissolved in water so as to make a paste. 

English patents, 1878, No. 1766. 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


337 


1 *)0 
X /V • 


1 lb. 
8 oz. 


4 ( 


Dr. Pousino, of Macao, used the following solution for embalming 
bodies: 

Boil in ten gallons of distilled water: 

Alum, 

Common salt, 

Saltpetre, 

Nitrate of potash, 

White arsenic, 

Chloride of zinc, 

Corrosive sublimate, 

Camphor, 

Glycerine, 

Alcohol, 


10 
18 
8 
2 
8 

8 “ 

2 gallons. 




i i 


4 4 ' 


4 4 


1 


1 <( 


That same gentleman recommends also a solution of alum, tannic 
acid and corrosive sublimate for submersion of the body. 


122a. clark’s solution, No. 1. 

Make a saturated solution of commercial borax in water, then force 
into this solution a stream 6f sulphurous acid gas by means of a pump 
or otherwise, and continue to force this gas into the solution until it 
becomes neutral. English patents 1867, No. 379. 


123. clark’s solution. No. 2. 

Dissolve pure crystals of sulphite of soda in water until the specific 
gravity of said solution will mark from five to thirty-five degrees 
Baume, and then neutralize said solution with sulphurous acid. 

124. BALSAMIC WINE. 

Good red wine, 8 pints. 

Cloves, roses, citron bark, colocynth, aa., 2 oz. 

Styrax, benzoin, aa., 1 “ 

Keduce these drugs to a coarse powder, macerate for a few hours in 
wine, and boil slightly. 

Usages : Lotions for the interior parts of the body; and to disinfect 
the chamber during the operation. 


125. COMPOUND BRANDY. 

Absinthe leaves, great centaury, rliue, sage, majory, 
mugwort, thyme, aa., 4 handfuls. 

Colocynth, 2 oz. 

Styrax, calamite, benzoin, aa., 3 “ 

Pepper, ginger, aa., 2 “ 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


338 


Macerate in a sand-bath for twenty-four hours, in fifteen pints of 
best brandy, with as much distilled vinegar. 


126. 


VINEGAR FOR WASHING THE HEAD, THE 

AN D FOR IN JECTIONS. 


BREAST, THE BELLY, 


White and black pepper, ginger, aa., 4 lb. 

Coloc^nth, 3 oz. 

Absinthe, centaury, hypericum, aa., 4 “ 

Reduce to a coarse powder, and macerate in forty pints of rose-vine¬ 
gar, then strain for use. 


127. FORMULA. 

Absinthe, five or six handfuls. 
Golocynth apples, 30 

Alum, common salt, aa., 1 lb. 

Concentrated vinegar, 14 pints. 

Let it boil a little, and add two pints of brandy. 


128. CERE-CLOTH. 

New wax, 12 lb. 

Fluid styrax, oil of turpentine, aa., 1 “ 

Melt and mix them over a slow fire, then draw the linen through it 
frequently so as to impregnate both sides. 

129. NAPHEGYUS PRESERVATIVE. 

Hydrate of Methyl, 2 parts. 

Oxide of ethyl, 1 “ 

English patents, 1874, No. 83. 


130 MIXTURE FOR SOAKING THE LINENS, THE CHEMISE, THE COIF¬ 


FURE, AND THE BANDAGES. 


New wax, 

Venice turpentine, gum elemi, of each, 
Powdered Florence iris, 

Styrax, calamite, benzoin, of each, 

Myrrh, aloes, of each, 

Balsam of Peru, oil of absinthe, 

Melt the wax and the gum, add the balsam, and 
aromatics for use. 


20 pounds 

9 a 

/v 

4 “ 

6 ounces 
3 “ 

q. s. 

then the powdered 


131 ROBOTTOM'S PREPARATION. 


Borate of Soda, 5 to 10 parts. 
Borate of Lime, 100 “ 

English patents, 1876, No. 1969. 


339 


SELECTED FORMUL.E. 

132. GORGES’ PRESERVATIVE POWDER. 


Chloride of sodium, 

50 parts by weight. 

Acetate of soda, 

35 “ “ 

Nitrate of potash, 

2 “ 

Chlorhydric acid, 

10 “ “ 

See United States Patent 20U3JP+. 9 


133. INJECTING 

FLUID. 

Arsenic, 

4 pounds. 

Carbonate of potash, 

2 “ 

Crude carbolic acid, 

2 pints. 

Glycerine, 

2 “ 

Hot water, to make 

1 gallon. 

Simmer slowly over a fire until well dissolved. 

134. SOLUTION OF 

CADET. 

Arsenic, 

8 parts. 

Carbolic acid, 

12 “ 

Acetate of soda. 

40 “ 

Glycerine, 

40 “ 

Water, 

300 “ 

135. DR. MEHU’S SOLUTION. 

Arsen ions acid. 

20 grammes. 

Carbolic acid (crystals), 

20 

Alcohol, 

300 

Distilled water, 

700 

The arsenic and alcohol preserve; carbolic acid prevents mold. 

136. 


Chloride sodium, 

4 parts. 

Nitrate of potash, 

1 “ 

White sugar. 

2 “ 

Tepid water. 

15 “ Dissolve 


FORMULA 137. THE EGYPTIAN EMBALMER. 

July 23, 1878. Kich J. McGowan assigns to the Egyptian Embalmer 
the following embalming composition for which letters patent were is¬ 
sued on that date, viz.: 

“The composition is prepared by first dissolving three pounds of 
saltpetre in one gallon of boiling water, then dissolving four ounces of 
thymol; six ounces of chloride of aluminium, four ounces of salicylic acid, 
and four ounces of glycerine in one gallon of water, and then adding 


340 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


about three gallons of water so as to obtain five gallons of the mixture. ” 
United States Patent No. 206,3pi. 


138. m’carty's fluid. 


Sulphate atropia, 
Boiling alcohol, 
Alum, 

Saltpetre, 

For use when body is discolored and 


6 oz. (! ! !) 

1 gal. 

4 oz. 

4 oz. 

gives off disagreeable odors, 


United States Patent , No. 222,521. 


139. m’carty’s fluid. 

II. After discoloration is removed and odors stopped, the following 
should be used for arterial injection through the natural openings. 

Sulphate of zinc, 4 oz. 

Water, 1 gal. 

Filter and add salicylic acid, 4 oz. (dissolved in alcohol), extract of 
white oak bark, 4 gal. 

140. CRAFT'S COMPOUND FOR PRESERVING FRUIT. 

Biborate of sodium, 10 grains; to be dissolved in one ounce of pure 
glycerine, at about 200°, together with the same amount of bisulphite 
of calcium. Then mix this ounce of syrup in- a quart of the liquid, or 
syrup, formed in the usual way for preserving fruit. Heat to 200° and 
pour over the fruit to be preserved. United States Patent, No. 221^.883. 

141. AETIMINLS COMPOUND FOR PRESERVING MEAT. 

Tartaric acid, crystallized, 2 parts. 

Boric acid, 15 parts. 

To be combined by heat to form a boro-tartrate, 12 to 15 parts. 

Aromatized water, 1,000 parts. 

To be prepared by immersing bits of nutmeg in distilled water. 

United States Patent, No. 228,016. 




142. eckart’s preservative compound. 
Common salt, 

Boracic acid (0. P.), 

Tartaric acid, 

Salicylic acid. 

United States Patent, No. 251,772. 


50 parts. 
P 
2 


m 


JL 

2 


a 


<( 


143. corwin’s preservative compound. 

Nitrate of potassium, salicylic acid, chloride of sodium, aa., 1 ounce. 
Dissolve in one quart of boiling water, then add one drachm of hydro¬ 
chloric acid, previously diluted with one ounce of water. 

United States Patent , No. 253,983. 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


341 


144. kudinger’s fluid. 

Glycerine, 40 parts. 

Crystallized carbolic acid, 11 

Alcohol, 8 “ 

Use 2 to 4 quarts for each subject, by arterial injection. Chic. 
Med. Journal and Ex ., July, 1880. 

145. INJECTING FLUID. 

Arsenious acid, 5 ounces. 

Sodii bicarb., 4 drachm. 

Aquae, 1 pint. 


146. CLEVELAND PRESERVATIVE FLUID. 


Arsenious oxid. 
Hydrochloric acid, 
Glycerine, 

Proof spirits, 
Water, q. s. ad, 


4 lb. 


q. s. ad. sol. 
4 pint. 

2 pints. 

1 gal. 


Dissolve the arsenic in part of the water by the aid of the acid. 
Mix and add the spirits and glycerine. 

147. INJECTING FLUID. 

Crystallized carb. of sodium, 16 oz. 

Oxide of arsenic, 12 oz. 

Water, 40 oz. 

Boil together in a porcelain vessel until all the arsenic is dissolved 
adding water as it evaporates so as to keep it to the original amount. 

148. UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT FORMULA. 


24 drachms. 

Q (( 


i c 


Arsenic acid, 

Nitrate of potash, 3 

Chloride of sodium, 64 

Alum, 34 oz. 

Boiling water, 4 quarts. 

Dissolve completely and let stand until cold, filter and add glycerine, 
6 pints, methylic alcohol 44 pints. It requires from 14 to 5 quarts to 
properly embalm a body 


149. 


ARSENICAL PRESERVATIVE. 


Arsenic, soda bicarbonate aa., 1 lb. Boil in 4 gal. of water one 
hour and add carbolic acid 4 oz. 


342 


SELECTED FORMULAE. 


150. INJECTING FLUID. 


Potass nitrate, 

1 

lb. 

Brown sugar, 

3 

lb. 

Alcohol, 

0 

oz. 

Carbolic acid, 

3 

oz. 

Water, 

1 

gallon 


i 


Plate VI. 

DIAGRAM OF HEART AND CIRCULATION. 

a. a. Vena Cava—inferior and superior. 

r. a. Eight auricle, with orifices of the vense cavae emptying into it. 

t. v. Tricuspid valve, closing orifice between right auricle and ven¬ 
tricle of heart. 

r. v. Eight ventricle of heart. 
p. a. o. Orifice of pulmonary artery. 

p. a. Eight and left pulmonary arteries. 

p. v. Pulmonary veins, arising from the lungs and emptying by four 
orifices into the left auricle. 

1. a. Left auricle. 

m. v. Mitral valve, closing orifice between left auricle and left ven¬ 
tricle. 

1. v. Left ventricle. 

a. o. Aortic orifice. 
a. o. a. Arch of the aorta. 

a. a. Ascending aorta, communicating by capillaries with the supe¬ 
rior vena cava. 

a. d. Descending aorta, at last communicating by capillaries with 
the inferior vena cava, though this communication is not 
shown in the plate, as in the case of the ascending aorta, the 
space being taken fora cut showing more in detail the anas¬ 
tomoses between the arterial and venous capillaries, and also 
the relative size of the artery and vein. 
a. Minute artery. 
v. Capillary vein. 

N. B. The course of the blood is shown by the arrows in the dia- 



Plate V 

e. 

i 

» 

i 

t 

i 











SECTION VII. 


PHARMACEUTICAL, ANATOMICAL, AND CHEMICAL LEXICON. 


ALSO A 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES 


AND 


LIST OF POISONS ANT) ANTIDOTES. 





























































































SECTION VII. 


A LEXICON 

OF THE 

Pharmaceutical, Anatomical and Chemical Terms employed 
in the Funeral Director’s Profession. 


A, or An before a vowel, signifies, 
when prefixed to a word derived 
from the Greek language, without, 
or deprived of, thus asthenia means 
without strength; anaesthesia denotes 
a loss of feeling, or sensation. 

AA. Signifies when written after 
two or more substances that they are 
taken in equal parts by weight or 
measure; e. g., common salt, nitre 
aa 5 oz. 

Ab. In words from the Latin has 
the same significance as a or an, in 
words from the Greek. 

Abarticulation. A joint ad¬ 
mitting of extensive motion. 

Abbreviations. Initial letters, 
or contractions, usually of Latin 
words, formerly largely used in 
pharmacy and medicine. Many of 
these have become obsolete, but 
those in general use may be found 
under their appropriate letters. 

Abies. The Latin name for fir, 
a genius of evergreen tree, several 
varieties of which produce balsams 
of value in the preservation of the 
dead, viz.: 

Abies Balsa me a. (The Amer¬ 
ican silver fir, or balm of Gilead.) 
The sap which exudes from its bark 


is known as Balsam fir, Canada tur¬ 
pentine, or Canada balsam. 

Abies Canadensis (Pinus Can¬ 
adensis, Hemlock Spruce). The 
species of fir from which Canada 
pitch is produced. 

Abies Excelsa. A species of 
European fir from which Burgundy 
pitch is obtained. 

Abdomen is that portion of the 
human body which lies below the 
diaphragm and above the pelvic 
bones and between the lumbar ver¬ 
tebras and the muscles of the belly. 
It is theoreticallv divided into nine 
regions by imaginary lines. (See 
page 74.) 

Abdominal. Pertaining to the 
abdomen. 

Abdominal Cavity, strictly 
speaking, is that contained within 
the peritoneal sack, excluding the 
kidneys and pelvic viscera. It is the 
largest of the three great cavities of 
the body and is usually spoken of as 
containing the stomach, liver, spleen, 
pancreas and kidneys, or all the 
organs embraced within the belly. 

Abdominal Pregnancy. (See 
Glossary of Diseases.) 

Abductor (L). The Latin name 


345 







346 


LEXICON. 


given to those muscles whose duty 
is to draw away from the center or, 
axis of the body. Some of the more 
important of these are: 

Abductor Oculi, or the muscle 
which draws the eyeball from the 
nose. 

Abductor Labiorum, or the 
muscle which draws up the angles 
of the mouth. 

Abductor Indicis, the abductor 
of the index finger. 

Abductor Longus Pollicis, the 
long abductor of the thumb. 

Abductor Indicis Pedis, the 
abductor of the big toe. 

O 

Ablation. Amputation, and in 
chemistry the removal of whatever 
is finished, or no longer necessary. 

Ablution. A washing often used 
in the sense of solution. 

Abortifacients or Abortives. 
Medicines used to produce abortion 
or miscarriage. (See poisons.) 

Abrasion. A rubbing or shaving 
off and hence used to denote a loss 
of the skin, or mucous membrane by 
friction or maceration. 

Abscission. The cutting off, or 
away of a part, hence sometime used 
as a synonym of amputation. 

Absinthium. The common worm¬ 
wood (Artimma Absinthium). See 
poison for Absinthism. 

Absolute Alcohol. (See Alco¬ 
hol.) 

Absolute Zero. Is that point of 
temperature at which a gas is sup¬ 
posed to have no elastic force and 
consequently exerts no pressure and 
has no molecular motion at all. 
Theoretically this point ought to be 
reached at 273 0., or 490 F. 

Absorbents. (A) The lacteal 
and lymphatic vessels which absorb, 
or take up, the partially digested 
food, or other substances. 

(B) Any medicine which absorbs 
and thus counteracts irritant and 
poisonous substances. 

(0) In surgery materials, such 
as sponges, cotton or tow used to 


absorb fluids. In medicine, drugs 
which neutralize alkalinity. (See 
alkalies.) 

Absorption. The act of imbibi¬ 
tion or taking up of a liquid by a 
porous body. Chemically used al¬ 
so to denote the conversion of a gas 
or vapor into a liquid, or solid by 
condensation upon some other sub¬ 
stance as hydrogen gas by spongy 
platinum. 

Abstergent. Cleansing or car¬ 
rying away, whence applied to med¬ 
icine used for this purpose. 

Abstract. In the U, S. P. the 
name is given to milk sugar triturates 
of an alcoholic extract; each grain 
of the abstract representing two 
grains of the crude drug. 

Acacia. A large genus of trees 
and shrubs, many of which yield val¬ 
uable gums and other medicinal pro¬ 
ducts, to wit: 

A. Catechu. From which gum 
catechu'is obtained. 

A. Cummi. Yera, etc., yielding 
the gum acacia of commerce. 

A. Adonsonii. Producing Serre- 
gat gum, etc., etc. 

Acardiac. Without a heart. 

Acarus, Acarus Scabiei. An 
insect producing the itch. 

Accelerator Muscle. One 
which aids in the expulsion of fluid. 

Accessory. Aiding in producing 
some effect. 

Accouchement. Delivery; child 
birth. 

Acephalous. Headless. 

Acenaptene. One of the con¬ 
stituents of coal tar. 

Acerb. Sour and bitter, like un¬ 
ripe fruit. 

Aceric Acid. An acid obtained 
from the sugar maple. 

Acerra. A vessel in which in¬ 
cense was burned by the Romans at 
their burials. 

Acescent. Liable to become sour 
or acid. 

Ac eta. Vinegar, or infusions of 
medicinal substances in distilled vine- 









LEXICON. 


347 


gar, or dilute acetic acid, which is a 
good solvent for many of the alka¬ 
loids, and other vegetable principles. 

Acetabulum. The hemispherical 
cavity in the hip hone which holds 
the round head of the femur, or the 
upper bone of the leg. 

Acetal. -A colorless liquid with 
a pleasant odor, not unlike alcohol, 
from which it is formed by oxida¬ 
tion by means of platinum black, j 
etc. 

Acetates. The chemical name ' 
given to the salts formed by the un-! 
ion of acetic acid with some base. ! 
Some of the more important acet¬ 
ates are: 

Alumina Acetate. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

Ammonia Acetate. Spirits Min¬ 
der eri. 

Amyl Acetate. (See Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Copper Acetate. Crystals of 
Venus. 

Lead Acetate. Sugar of Lead. 

Morphia Acetate. (See Pois¬ 
ons.) 

Potassa Acetate. Potassa Acel- 
as. 

* Soda Acetate. Sodae Acetcis. 

Zinc Acetate. Zinci Acetas. 

Acetic Acid. An acid prepared 
from vinegar, etc., found in the 
market either as a colorless, acid 
liquid, or under the name of glacial 
acid in ice-like crystals which melt 
with very little heat (10 C.) and take 
up sufficient moisture from the at¬ 
mosphere to deliquesce. 

Acetification. The operation 
of making vinegar, or turning sour. 

Acetimetre. An instrument for 
determining the amount of acetic 
acid contained in vinegar. 

Acetone. A colorless, inflam¬ 
mable liquid sp. gr. o. 792, 
sometimes known as pyro-acetic 
ether. 

Acetous, or Acetose. Sour, acid. 

Acetum. Vinegar, which see. 

Acetyle(l)ne. An exceedingly 


» 

poisonous, colorless gas, with a dis¬ 
agreeable odor which it imparts to 
ordinary gas, of which it is one of 
the constituents. (See Poisons.) 

Achilles Tendo (The tendon of 
Achilles). The large tendon just 
above the heel. Name from Achil¬ 
les from the fable that there was the 
only place where he could be 
wounded. 

Achor. A small pustule which 
suppurates. 

Acicula. Shaped like a needle. 

Acid. Popularly denotes any sub¬ 
stance with a sour taste. Chemically 
an acid is a compound containing 
replacable hydrogen united to an 
electro-negative element by oxygen. 
(See Chemistry, p. 127.) 

Some of the more important acids 
are:— 

Arsenic Acid. (See Poisons.) 

Arsenious Acid. White Arsenic. 
(See Poisons.) 

Benzoic Acid. Prepared from 
Gum Benzoin. 

Carbolic Acid. (See Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Chromic Acid. (See Antiseptics.) 

Citric Acid. (See Citrates.) 

Cyanic Acid. (See Cyanates.) 

Glacial Phosphoric Acid. (See 
Phosphates.) 

Hydrocyanic Acid. (See Pois¬ 
ons. ) 

Hyoiodic Acid. (See Iodides.) 

Hydrochloric Acid. (See Chlo¬ 
rides.) 

Lactic Acid. (See Chemistry of 
Body.) 

Margaric Acid. (See Chemistry 
of Body.) 

Muriatic Acid. (See Poisons.) 

Nitric Acid. (See Poisons.) 

Nttro - Hydrochloric Acid. 
(See Poisons.) 

Palmitic Acid. (See Chemistry 
of Body.) 

Para lactic Acid. (See Chem¬ 
istry of Body.) 

Phosphoric Acid. (See Phos¬ 
phates.) 







348 


LEXICON. 


Pyroligneous Acid. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

Stearic Acid. (See Chemistry 
of Body.) 

Succinic Acid. (See Chemistry 
of Body.) 

Sulphuric Acid. (See Poisons.) 

Sulphurous Acid. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

Tannic Acid. (See Antiseptics.) 

Tartaric Acid. (See Tartrates.) 

Taurocholic Acid. (See Chem¬ 
istry of Body.) 

Uric Acid. (See Chemistry of 
Body.) 

Valerianic Acid. (See Chem¬ 
istry of Body, etc., etc.) 

Acidity. Able to be turned into 
acid. 

Acidifier. That necessary to 
make an acid. 

Acidify. To make acid. 

Acidimeter. An instrument for 
ascertaining, or for estimating the 
strength of acids. 

Acidifiable. The quality of 
being sour. 

Aciduale. Medicinal springs 
impregnated with acid. 

Acidulate. To make acid. 

Acidulous. Slightly sour. 

Acme. (G-.) The height of a 
disease. 

Acne. Pimples appearing on the 
face. 

Aconitina. The alkaloid of 
Aconite. (See Poisons.) 

Aconite. (See Poisons.) 

Acoustics. The science of sound. 

Acrasy. The predominance of 
one quality above another in a 
mixture. 

Acrid. Pungent, sour, biting. 

Acrimony. That quality which 
dissolves or destroys. 

Acrolein. A colorless, suffocat¬ 
ing liquid obtained by the action of 
heat on glycerine. 

Acrylic Acid. An acid pro¬ 
duced by the oxidation of acrolein. 

Acromial. Belonging to the 
acromian. 


Acromian. The top of the 
shoulder. 

Actinism. The property of the 
sun’s rays to produce chemical 
changes. 

Active Principle. Chemically 
is that portion of a vegetable drug 
that maj be extracted from it and 
substituted pharmaceutically for the 
crude drug. 

Actual Cautery. The use of 
a red hot iron in treatment of dis¬ 
ease. 

Acuminated. Pointed like a 
needle. 

Acupuncture. Treatment of 
diseases by the use of fine needles 
inserted in the diseased parts. 

Acuteness. The violence of the 
disease which brings it to a crisis. 

Adam’s Apple. The thyroid 
cartilage of the larynx or the most 
prominent part of the throat. 

Adapter. A glass tube open at 
both ends placed between a retort and 
a receiver. 

Adcorporate. To unite one 
body with another. 

Addendum. (L.) Something 
to be added. 

Adeps. Lard. (See Axungia.) 

Adductor. A muscle which 
draws the parts toward the axis of 
the body. e. g., adductorpollicis, or 
the adductor of the thumb, or great 
toe; the adductor mcignus, or the 
great adductor of the thigh; the ad¬ 
ductor brevis , etc. 

Aden. (G.) A gland. 

Adenitis. (See Glossary of Dis¬ 
eases. ) 

Adenalgia. (See Diseases.) 

Adenography. Description of 
glands. 

Adeno - Meningeal. Affecting 
the glands and mucus membrane. 

Adenine. A new base discovered 
in 1885 by Kossel in the spleen and 
pancreas. It is also present in all 
vegetable and animal cells. Proba¬ 
bly a decomposition product of cell 
nuclei, and, according to the discov- 




LEXICON. 


erer, is very jioisonous, showing 
itself chiefly by its effects upon the 
medulla oblongata. (See Poisons.) 

Ad Finem. (L.) To the end. 

. Adhesion. The union of parts. 

Adhesive. Sticky, tenacious. 

Ad Infinitum. (L.) To an end¬ 
less extent. 

Ad Interim. (L.) In the mean¬ 
time. 

Adipocere. A soft, waxy sub¬ 
stance of a light brown color, resem¬ 
bling spermaceti, into which dead 
bodies may be converted by long 
immersion in water or diluted alco¬ 
hol, or by burial in moist places 
under peculiar circumstances. First 
discovered by Fourcroy in a Parisian 
burying-ground in 1781. (See Chem¬ 
istry of Body.) 

Adipose. Fat. (See Adipose Tis¬ 
sue. 

Adipson. (G.) A medicine 
which relieves thirst. 

Adjuvant. A substance added to 
a prescription to assist the effects of 
the more important drug. 

Ad Libitum. At pleasure. 

Admixture. Is used in chemis¬ 
try to denote simply a mechanical 
mixture of different substances. It 
differs from chemical combination 
in that a chemical compound differs 
from its constituents, while admix¬ 
ture does not alter the nature of the 
substance mixed. 

Adraganth. (See Tragacanth.) 

Adolesence. Youth verging on 
to manhood. 

Adventitious. Accidental. 

Adulteration. Making impure 
by the mixture with base or cheaper 
materials. 

Adynamic. Without strength or 
vitality. 

Aegophony. (G.) A diseased 
sound from the lung somewhat re¬ 
sembling the bleating of a goat, 
whence its name. 

Aerate. To impregnate with air 
or gas. 

Aerated. Impregnated with some 


gas, usually carbon dioxide, as are the 
aerated mineral waters. 

Aerial. Pertaining to the air, 
or atmosphere. 

Aeriform. Similar to air, or gas. 

Aerometer. An instrument for 
measuring the bulk of gases. 

Eruginous. Resembling verdi¬ 
gris, or the rust upon copper. 

Esclepiades. Were the follow¬ 
ers of Esculapius and claimed to 
have inherited from him his secret 
medical knowledge. The members 
of this caste were bound by an oath 
not to reveal the secrets of their pro¬ 
fession. 

Else ul a pi us. In Homer, spoken 
of only as a skilled physician, but in 
later legend^ becomes the god or 
patron of medicine. 

Esthetic a. Diseases affecting 
the sensation. 

Etas, or Aet. (L.) Age. 

Mother, Ethera. (See Ether.) 

Etiierial. Aeriform, or like an 
ether. 

Etherization. The adminis¬ 
tration of ether or some other stupe¬ 
fying vapor. 

Etiology, or Etiology. The 
science of the causes of disease. 

Ethiops Mineral. Mercury 
triturated with sulphur until it- as¬ 
sumes a black color from its conver¬ 
sion into a sulphide. 

Ethiops, Vegetabilis. Vege¬ 
table ethiopes; the name given to 
charcoal obtained by the heating of 
seaweed in a cold vessel. 

Afferent. Carrying toward; 
applied to lymphatics carrying the 
lymph to the glands, also nerves which 
convey impressions to the brain. 

Affectus. A disease or passion. 

Affinity. The tendency of dif¬ 
ferent forms of matter to unite. 
(See Chemical Affinity, or Chemism.) 

Affuse. To pour upon, to sprin¬ 
kle, as with a liquid. 

Afflux. The act of flowing to; 
the congestion of a part with blood. 

After Pains. Pains occurring 





350 


LEXICON. 


soon after delivery, due to irregular 
contractions of the womb. 

Agenesis. The imperfect devel¬ 
opment of any part of the body. 

Agglutinant. Anv adhesive ma- 

*j 

terial used to unite substances to¬ 
gether. 

Agglutinate. To stick together. 

Agglutition. Inability to swal¬ 
low. 

Ague. A chill, or the cold stage 
of an intermittent fever. 

Ague Cake. The popular name 
for the enlarged spleen of chronic 
malaria. 

Ague Drop. (See Fowler’s Solu¬ 
tion.) 

Ague Tree. The name formerly 
applied to the sassafras tree from its 
supposed value in ague. 

Air-Slaked. Lime or other liv- 
groscopic substances that gather 
moisture from exposure to the air, 
after awhile crumble, and are then 
said to be air-slaked. 

Akasgia. The name of a vege¬ 
table ordeal poison, from which many 
people perish yearly in Africa. Its 
composition is unknown, but its ac¬ 
tion very closely resembles mix vom¬ 
ica, which see. 

Ala. (PI. Alse.) (L.) A wing, 
hence often applied by anatomists to 
projecting parts, as the alas of the 
nose, or the alae of the vomer. 

Alantoin. A starchy substance, 
identical with inulin. 

Alaris. (L.) Wing shaped. 

Alabaster. A semi-transparent 
variety of gypsum, usually white, 
but sometimes yellow, red or gray. 

Albescent. Becoming white. 

Albino. A person who is desti¬ 
tute of color in the eyes, skin and 
hair. (S ee Leucodermct.) 

Albugenitis. An inflammation 
of the white tissues. 

Albugineous. A term applied 
to tissues and textures which are 
white as the albigineous tunic of the 
eye. (. Albuginea Occult.) 

Albugo. A white spot in the eye. 


Albumen or Albumin. So named 
from its property of turning white 
wlien heated to coagulation. One of 
the most important constituents of 
all organized matter, whether animal 
or vegetable. It is seen nearly pure 
in the white of an egg. (See Constit¬ 
uents of the Body.) Vegetable albu¬ 
men is identical with animal albu¬ 
men. and is found in many vegetable 
juces, from which it may be separa¬ 
ted by heat, nitric acid, or the soluble 
salts of mercury, cojiper or zinc. It 
is a very unstable compound, con¬ 
taining carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, 
oxygen and sulphur. 

Albuminates. Are organic com¬ 
pounds in which albumen is com¬ 
bined with some base. (For the 
albuminates, see corrosive subli¬ 
mate, copper, aluminium and zinc 
chlorides.) 

Albuminoids. Are chemical 
compounds so named because of 
their close resemblance to albumen. 
(See Constituents of the Human 
Body.) 

Albumenose. Partially digested 
albumen. (See Peptone.) 

A lb uminur i a . Albu m inou s urine. 
(See Bright’s Disease.) 

Alburnum. The white or sap 
wood of a tree. 

Alcaiiest. A pretended univer¬ 
sal solvent, long sought for by the 
Alchemists. 

Alcanin. An active principle 
extracted from alkanet by petroleum 
ether. 

Alchemists. The earliest chem¬ 
ists, whose aim was to transmute the 
baser metals into gold. 

Alchemy. The science cultivated 
by the Alchemist. 

Alcohol. Rectified spirits of 
wine. (See Antiseptics.) 

Absolute Alcohol. Alcohol ab¬ 
solutely free from water. 

Amyl Alcohol. Fusel oil. (See 
Poisons.) 

Dilute Alcohol. Alcohol mixed 
with equal parts of water. 







LEXICON. 


3-31 


Methyl Alcohol. (See Wood 
Spirit—Antiseptics.) 

Officinal Alcohol. • Has a 
specific gravity of 0.835 to 0.838. 

These are the more important 
varieties of alcohol, but there are 
known to chemistry a very large 
number of organic compounds to 
which has been given the name of 

Alcohols, or carbon compounds 
containing hydrogen, oxygen, and a 
positive organic base. Many of these 
are dense liquids, like glycerine, 
which is really, chemically an alco¬ 
hol, or even solid bodies, and are 
totally unlike in all other projjerties 
the popular idea of an alcohol. 

Alcoholates. Salts formed from 
the alcohols by a substitution of a 
base for a part of their hydrogen. 

Alcoholic Fermentation. The 
change whereby a solution of sugar 
is changed into dilute alcohol. (See 
Fermentation.) 

Alcoholic Potass a. Caustic 
potash is so called, when it has been 
prepared by dissolving it in alcohol 
to,free it from impurities, and then 
recovering the potassa bv evapor¬ 
ating off the alcohol. 

Alcoholmetre. An instrument 
designed to estimate the proportion 
of alcohol contained in any liquor. 
It was invented by Gay Lussac, and 
contains a scale containing 100 un¬ 
equal parts; 0 represents pure water, 
and 100 absolute alcohol. A similar 
instrument designed by Tralles is 
used by the U. S. Government. 

Aldehydes. Literally dehydro¬ 
genated alcohols from which they 
are formed by the abstraction of two 
atoms of hydrogen. Theoretically 
there are as many aldehydes as 
alcohols. Ordinary or acetic alde¬ 
hyde is a colorless, volatile, very acrid 
liquid from which is formed aldehyde 
resin, a brownish, gummy substance, 
by the action of potassic hydrate. 

Ale. A malt liquor, differing 
from beer chiefly in having a smaller 
proportion of hops. Its color depends 


u]ion the amount of roasting given 
its malt. 

Alegar. Sour ale; vinegar made 
from ale. 

Alembic. A vessel formerly used 
for distillation but now generally 
replaced by the retort and worm- 
still. 

Alembroth. The name formerly 
given to a compound of corrosive 
sublimate and muriate of ammonia. 

Aletrine. The proximate prin¬ 
ciple of aletris, or star grass. 

Alexipharmic. A medicine de¬ 
signed to act as an antidote to 
poison. 

Alexiteric. Resisting poison. 

Algarobia. A tree producing 
mesquite gum which closely re¬ 
sembles gum arabic in many of its 
properties. 

Algaroth or Algarot. An in¬ 
soluble oxychloride of antimony, 
made by pouring water into ^a 
strongly acid solution of the chloride. 
It receives its name of powder of 
Algaroth from a physician of Verona 
who discovered it. Emetic and 
poisonous. (See Antimony.) 

Alienatio mentis. (L.) (See Tp- 
sanity.) 

Aliform. Wing like. 

Aliment. Nourishment ; any 

1 ' V 

kind of food. 

•Alimentary Canal. The entire 
passage through which the food 
passes from its entrance into the 
mouth until it is rejected from the 
body. (See plate No. 2.) 

Alizapurpurin. A purple color¬ 
ing matter. 

Alizarin. A dye obtained both 
from madder and artificially pre¬ 
pared from anthracene, a coal-tar 
product. 

Alkalescent. Slightly alkaline. 

Alkali. Any chemical com¬ 
pound which will turn red litmus 
blue and neutralize an acid to form 
a salt. Volatile alkali is ammonia gas. 

Alkali Albuminate. (See De¬ 
composition Products.) 






LEXICON. 


I 


35: 


Alkalimeter. An instrument 
designed to estimate the strength of 
an alkali, usually for potash, soda or 
ammonia. 

Alkalimetry. The estimation 
of the strength of alkalies. 

Alkaline. Possessing the proji- 
erties of an alkali. 

Alkaloid. Like an alkali. Ap¬ 
plied in chemistry to a group of 
nitrogenous substances obtained 
from the vegetable kingdom, which 
possess an alkaline reaction, and 
combine like them with acids to 
form salts, such as quinine sulphate. 

Alkanet Paper is that soaked 
in a tincture of alkanet root, and is 
used like litmus paper. 

Allantoic Acid. An acid ex¬ 
tracted from the liquid surrounding 
the fetal calf. (See Ammiotic Acid.) 

Allantoin. A crystalline pro¬ 
duct of oxidation of uric acid. 

Allantois. A sack found in the 
fetal quadruped between the tail 
and bladder. 

Alliaceous. Resembling allium, 
or garlic. 

Allotropism. A term used in 
chemistry to denote the existence of 
the same chemical compounds under 
different forms, e. g., a diamond, 
charcoal, and lamp black are all 
allotropic conditions of carbon. 

Alloxan. An oxidation product 
of uric acid. (See Chemistry of the 
Body.) 

Alloys. Any combination of 
metals which when fused together 
give a compound differing from its 
ingredients. The more important 
of these alloys are given below : 


Aluminum bronze, 

Bell metal, 

Bronze, 

Gun metal, 
Speculum metal, 
Brass, 

Dutch gold, 
Mosaic gold, 
Ormolu, 

Toinbac, 


Copper and alumi 
num. 

Copper and tin. 
Copper and tin. 
Copper and tin. 
Copper and tin. 
Copper and zinc. 
Copper and zinc. 
Copper and zinc. 
Copper and zinc. 
Copper and zinc. 


| German silver, 

Packfong, 
j Britannia metal, 
Solder, 

Pewter, 

Fusible metal, 

Type metab 


Stereotype metal, 

Shot metal, 
Standard gold, 
Standard silver, 


Copper, nickel, and 
zinc. 

Copper and arsenic. 

Tin and antimony. 

Tin and lead. 

Tin and lead. 

Bismuth, lead, tin, 
and cadmium. 

Lead and antimony, 
and sometimes a 
little copper. 

Lead, antimony, and 
bismuth. 

Lead and arsenic. 

Gold and copper. 

Silver and copper. 


Allspice. Pimento berries. 

Allyil. An organic radical ob¬ 
tained from oil of garlic, where it 
exists in the form of its sulphide 

(C 3 h 5 ) 2 s. 

Allylene. (C 3 II 4 ). A colorless 
gas, with an unpleasant odor. 

Allylic Alcohol. A colorless 
liquid, obtained by the reaction of 
glycerine and oxalic acid. 

Almond. For toxicology see Oil 
of Bitter Almonds, under Poisons. 

Almug. Supposed to be sandal 
wood, mentioned in the Scripture^. 

Alnuin. The active principle of 
tag alder. 

Aloes. (See Antiseptics and Dis¬ 
infectants.) 

Aloetic. Pertaining to aloes. 

Aloin. A crystallizable, active 
principle of aloes. 

Aloisol. An oily liquid, obtained 
by the distillation of aloes with caus¬ 
tic lime. 

Alopecia. (0.) Baldness. 

Alphanix. A kind of sugar- 
candy used for colds. 

Alpinia Cardamomum. ( Elet - 
taria Cardamomum.) The carda¬ 
mom plant. 

Alquifou. A sort of lead ore 
(galena) which, when broken, resem¬ 
bles sulphuret of antimony. It is 
used by potters to give a green var¬ 
nish to their wares, and is called 
potters’ ore. 

Alstonia Sciiolaris. A possible 
substitute for gutta perclia, found in 







LEXICON. 


V 


the concrete juice of an Apocynea 
growing in Ceylon. 

Alterative. A medicine which 
gradually induces a change in the 
constitution, and restores healthy 
functions. 

Althea (Marshmallow.) A genus 
of plants. The root of one species 
contains considerable starch, sugar 
and mucilage. 

Altheus. A physician. 

Aludel. Earthen pots without 
bottoms, used in sublimations. 

Alum. (Sulphate of alumina and 
potassa.) A transparent, colorless 
salt, crystallizing in octahedrons, 
with an astringent taste. Rarely 
found pure in nature. 

Alum Sheet. A common sheet 
soaked in a saturated solution of 
alum, used to wrap the body in the 
process of cremation. 

Alumina. An earth obtainable 
by calcining ammonia-alum. It con¬ 
tains two equivalents of aluminium 
and three of oxygen. 

Aluminite. (Sulphate of alumi¬ 
na.) A yellowish white mineral, 
found in soil containing chalk. 

Aluminium. A white, malleable, 
ductile, elastic metal, discovered in 
1827. 

Aluminized Charcoal. A sub¬ 
stitute for purified animal charcoal, 
obtained by combining alumina with 
wood charcoal. 

Aluminous. Containing alum. 

Alusia. (L.) Illusion; halluci¬ 
nation. 

Alvearium. (L.) Outer opening 
of the ear. 

Alveolar. Name applied to ves¬ 
sels belonging to the sockets of the 
teeth. 

Alveolus. (L.) The bony socket 
of the teeth. 

Alvine. Pertaining to the en¬ 
trails. 

Amadou. (German Tinder.) A 
fungous,, very inflammable growth, 
found on old trees, and used as tin¬ 
der. 


Amalgam. Mercury combined 
with any other metal. 

Amalgamation. Name of a pro¬ 
cess of obtaining gold and silver from 
ores by the aid of mercury. 

Amanitine. The poisonous prin¬ 
ciple of certain fungi. 

Amaranth. A color inclining to 
purple. 

Amaranthus. A genus of plants 
containing many species. 

Amarus. Bitter. 

Amaurosis. (L.) Paralysis of the 
optic nerve. 

Amber. A hard, bituminous sub¬ 
stance of yellowish color, said to be 
a fossil resin of vegetable origin. It 
is found in sands and clays of lower 
tertiary formation. 

Ambergris. An asli-colored, waxy 
substance, of very strong fragrant 
odor, found floating upon the sur¬ 
face of the sea. There are many 
theories as to its origin, one being 
that it is a morbid secretion of the 
sperm whale. 

Ambidexter. Using either hand 
with equal skill. 

Amblosis. An abortion. 

Amblyopia. Feebleness of vis¬ 


ion. 

Ambreada. A kind of artificial 
amber. 

Ambreate. A salt formed by the 
combination of ambreic acid with a 


base. 


Ambreic Acid. An acid formed 
by digesting ambreine in nitric acid. 

Ambreine. One of the animal 
proximate principles, and the chief 
constituent of ambergris. 

Ambrosia. A genus of plants. 

Ambrosial. Fragrant. 

Ambulatory. ) w q 

A [ Wandering. 

Ambulant. 


Amelanciiier. A plant from 
which the constituent of bitter al¬ 
mond may be derived. 

Amenorrhcea. Absence of 
menses. 


American Aloe. (See Agave.) 
Amentia. (L.) Idiocy. 




354 


LEXICON. 


Amtanthoid. A variety of as¬ 
bestos. 

Amides. Compound ammonias 
in which 1, 2 or 3 of the hydrogen 
atoms are replaced by an acid radi¬ 
cal. Ammonias in which one or 
more atoms of hydrogen are re¬ 
placed by base radicals are called 
Amines. 

Amidine. Starch modified by 
heat so as to form a horn-like soluble 
mass. 

Amido-Cloride of Mercury. 
(See Ammoniated Mercury.) 

Amido-Valerianic Acid. An 
acid formed by the action of silver 
on bromo-valerianic acid. 

Amidogen. A basic principle 
composed of two equivalents of hy¬ 
drogen and one of nitrogen. 

Amines. (See Amides.) 

Ammonia. A gas obtained from 
slaked lime heated with sal-ammo- 
nica. See p. 220. 

Ammoniac. ( Ammoniacum .) A 
yellow nauseous gum-resin obtained 
from Persia. 

Ammoni/E Aqua. An aqueous 
solution of ammonia gas. 

Ammoniametre. An instrument 
for determining the strength of am¬ 
monia. 

Ammoniated Copper, A salt, 
used medicinally as a tonic, obtained 
by triturating together sulphate of 
copper and carbonate of ammonia. 

Ammoniated Mercury A prep¬ 
aration formed by precipitation of a 
solution of corrosive sublimate by 
ammonia. 

Ammonium. A quasi-metal which 
can be substituted for potassium or 
sodium in the alkali salts, forming 
ammonium salts. 

Amnesia. Loss of memory. 

Amnion. (G.) The inner envel¬ 
ope of the fetus in the uterus. 

Amniotic Acid. An acid found 
in the amniotic fluids. 

Amniotic Fluid. ( Liquor amnii.) 
Water surrounding the fetus in the 
uterus. 


Amnitis. Inflammation of the 
amnion. 

Amomum. A genus of plants pos¬ 
sessing pungent and aromatic prop¬ 
erties. 

Amorphous. Irregular; non¬ 
crystalline ; shapeless. 

Ampelite. An earth abounding 
in pyrites, used anciently to kill in¬ 
sects on vines. 

Ampelopsis. Name for the 
American ivy. 

Amphi. A prefix signifying 
around; on both sides. 

Amphiartiirosis. A mixed ar¬ 
ticulation, allowing but slight mo¬ 
tion. 

Amphide. A term applied to 
compounds consisting of acids and 
bases, as distinguished from haloid 
compounds. 

Amphidexius. (L.) Ambidex¬ 
ter. 

Am phihe x ahedr al. C rystals 

whose faces counted in two different 
directions give two hexahedral out¬ 
lines, or are six in number. 

Amphoric. A term used in de¬ 
scribing a sound like blowing into a 
jar 

Ampulla. (L.) A bottle; a re¬ 
ceiver. 

Amputation. The cutting off a 
limb or other part of the body. 

Amulets. Charms found in Egyp¬ 
tian tombs, are idols in gold, bronze, 
varnished terra-cotta, and wood, 
gilded or painted. 

Amygdala Amara. (See Al¬ 
monds, Bitter.) 

Amygdalate. A salt containing 
amygdalic acid. 

Amygdalic Acid. The acid ob¬ 
tained from amygdalin. • 

Amyaidalin. A crystalline sub¬ 
stance obtained from the kernel of 
the bitter almond. 

Amygdalus. The plant yielding 
the sweet almond. 

Amyl. A radical consisting of 
ten parts of carbon and eleven of 
hydrogen. 





LEXICON. 


355 


Amylaceous. Starch-like. 

Amylen. A volatile, colorless 
oily liquid obtained from distilling 
potato-oil. The vapor has been used 
as an anaesthetic. 

Amylin. The tegumentary por¬ 
tion of starch. It is, when entirely 
freed from the interior soluble matter, 
wholly insoluble in water and alcohol. 

Amylum. A principle of the-seed 
of the Triticum vulgare. It is in¬ 
odorous, insipid, white and friable. 
Found in various grains, plants and 
roots. 


Amykis. A genus of trees pro¬ 
ducing a resinous juice. 

Amyos. (G.) Deficient in mus¬ 
cular strength. 

Anacardic Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained from the juice of the cashew- 
nut. 

Anacardium. The cashew tree, 
yielding a caustic oil, used for de¬ 
stroying warts, etc. 

Anacartiiaric. Expectorant. 

Anaemia. (G.) Lack of blood. 

Anaemic. Pertaining to anaemia. 

Anaerobic. Existing without air 
or oxjrgen. (See Bacteriology.) 

Anaesthesia. Insensibility pro¬ 
duced by chloroform or other agents. 

Anaesthetic. Causing insensibil¬ 
ity by inhalation. 

Anagallis Aryensis. (L.) A 
plant producing a volatile oil which 
causes headache. 

Anagraph. A prescription. 

Anal. Pertaining to the anus. 

Analeptic. Restorative. 


Analgesia. 

Analgia. 


Lack of pain. 


Anamirta Cocculus. A climb¬ 
ing shrub with a corky bark, pro¬ 
ducing poisonous and intoxicating 
berries. 

Ananas. The pine-apple. 

Anandria. (G.) Lack of man¬ 
hood. 

Anaphia. (G.) Loss of the sense 
of touch. 

Anaphrodisia. (G.) Impotency. 

Anaphrodisiac. A medicine 
blunting sexual appetite. 

Anaplerotic. An application 
causing granulation of wounds or 
ulcers. 

Anaplasis. (G.) Restoration. 

Anaplastic. Surgical art of 
transplanting skin. 

Anaplosis. (G.) Growth. 

Anapnoe. (G.) Respiration. 

Anarcotina. A term applied to 
narcotina, denoting its small narcotic 
power. 

Anarthrus. (G.) Jointless. 

Anasarca. Dropsy of the cellu¬ 
lar tissue. 

Anastaltic. An energetic stiptic 
or astringent. 

Anastomosis. (G.) Communica¬ 
tion between two vessels. (See Inos¬ 
culation.) 

Anatomy. (From anatemno , to 
cut apart.) Literally, a dissection, or 
the science whose object is the ex¬ 
amination of the structure, relation 
and uses of the parts of the human 
body, or those of the lower animals. 

Pathological anatomy is the study 
of the changes produced in the or¬ 
gans and tissues by disease. 

Anatron. Soda. . 


Analogue. A counterpart. 

Analogous. Closely similar. 

Analysis. The separation of a 
compound body into its constituent 
parts. 

Qualitative Analysis. The de¬ 
termination simply of the ingredients 
present. 

Quantitative Analysis. The 
determination of the proportions of 
the ingredients or constituents. 

O 


Anatrope. Turning. 

Anchyloblepharon. (G.) Ad¬ 
hesion of the eyelids. 

Anchylosis. An impossibility of 
movement in a natural articulation. 

Ancon. (L.) The elbow-joint. 

Anconceus. Small muscle on the 
elbow. 

Anconoid. A process upon the 
ulna. 

Anda Brasiliensis. (L.) A tree 






LEXICON. 


35G 

of Brazil which yields a poisonous 
milky juice. 

Andaric. Bed orpiment. 

Andira Inermis. (L.) A legu¬ 
minous tree of the West Indies. 

Andria. (G.) Manhood. 

Anuria Mulier. Hermaphro¬ 
dite. 

Andromeda. A genus of plants. 

Androtomy. Human anatomy. 

Androgynes. An hermaphro¬ 
dite. 

Anemos. (G.) The wind. 

Anencephalus. (G.) A mon¬ 
ster born without brains. 

Anenergia. (G.) Debility. 

Aner. (G.) A man. 

Anerobic. (See Anasrobic.) 

Anesis. (G.) Remission. 

Anethol. A name for the solid 
and liquid oils of anise. A hydro¬ 
carbon. 

Aneticus. (L.) Anodyne. 

Anetus. Intermittent fever. 

Aneurism. An abnormal dila¬ 
tion of an artery and rupture of its 
coating. 

Aneurism Cordis. Dilation of 
the heart. 

Aneurism Spurium. A rupture 
of all the coats of the artery. 

Anfractuosity. A groove or 
furrow. 

Angeiology . Science of the 
vascular system. 

Angelic Acid. A fatty acid ob¬ 
tained from croton oil. 

Angelicin. A crystallizable sub¬ 
stance obtained from the root of the 
A ngelica archangelica. 

Angina. (L.) An inflammatory 
affection of the throat. 

Angina Pectoris. (L.) A dis¬ 
ease of the nerves of the heart. 

Anginosa. (L.) Accompanied 
with angina. 

Angola Weed. Species of lich¬ 
ens producing litmus. 

Angone. Nervous quinsy. 

Angraecum Fragrans. An orch¬ 
id cons plant, native of the Isle of 
Bourbon, the leaves of which have 


long been used under the name of 
Folium , for the same purposes as 
Chinese tea. They have a strong 
agreeable odor. 

Angsana, ) A red gum of the 

Angsava. ) East Indies, resemb¬ 
ling Dragon’s blood. 

Angustura. The bark of Gali- 
pea officinalis or (}. cusp aria, a small 
tree/ the bark of which is considered 
a stimulant tonic, and, in large doses, 
emetic and cathartic. 

Anhelation. Short and rapid 
breathing. 

Aniiistous. Without organic tex¬ 
ture. 

Anhydrite. Without water,—re¬ 
ferring to mineral compounds. 

Aniiydrus. Without water. 

Anil. A shrub from whoso leaves 
and stalks indigo is made; a species 
of indigo fern or indigo plant. 

Anilina. ( Phenylamina , Phena- 
mide.) An artificial alkaloid pre¬ 
pared on a small scale from nitro- 
benzole, iron filings, and strong 
acetic acid. It is a colorless oil, of 
vinous odor and aromatic taste. Com¬ 
bined with sulphuric acid it forms 
the medicinal sulphate. 

Aniline, ) A base, analogous 

Anilin, v to ammonia, andcon- 

Anilia, ) sisting of twelve parts 
of carbon, seven of hydrogen, and 
one of nitrogen. It is produced by 
indigo, coal tar, and other sub¬ 
stances, on distillation, and affords 
a deep violet-blue color with chlo¬ 
ride of lime or by reaction with bi¬ 
carbonate of potassa. 

Animal Alkali. Ammonia. 

Animal Charcoal. (See Bone 
Black.) 

Animal Heat. Caloric formed 
by breathing oxygen. (See Chemis¬ 
try of the Human Body. ) 

Animalcula. ( Plural , animal¬ 
cules.) An insect invisible to the 
naked eye. 

Anime. A resin used for varnish, 
and also as incense. 

Animus. (L.) The principle of life. 







LEXICON". 


357 


Aninga. A root growing in the 
West Indies, used in refining sugar. 

Anisatum. A wine made with 
honey and anise seed. 

A nisi:. The seed of the Pimpi- 
nella anisum, possessed of a piquant 
taste, slightly sweet. The best comes 
from Malta and Alicante. 

Anise Camphor. An oil con¬ 
tained in oil of anise. Called also 
stearoptene. 

Anisette. A cordial flavored 
with anise-seed. 

Anisic Acid. An acid formed 
by the oxidation of anise oil by 
nitric or chromic acid. 

Ankle. The malleolus, a joint 
connecting the foot with the leg. 

Anakylosis. (G-.) A stiff joint. 

Annotto. A yellow coloring sub¬ 
stance obtained from the Bixa tree. 
It is used in dyeing. 

Annual. A plant whose life is 
comprised within one year. 

Annular. Ringlike. 

Ano. A prefix, meaning above . 

Anodic. Tending upward. 

Anodyne. A drug benumbing 
the sensibilities and inducing sleep. 

Anodynia. (L.) Absence of 
pain. 

Anoint. To smear or rub over 
with oily substances. 

Anomalous. 

Anomaly. 

Anomesia. (L.) Loss of mind. 

Anomphalous. Without a navel. 

Antalkali. A medicine for neu¬ 
tralizing an alkaline tendencv. 

Antagonist. A term applied to 
counteracting muscles. 

Antapopleptic. A remedv for 
apoplexy. 

Antaphrodisiac. Medicines 
which blunt the sexual appetite. 

Antartiiritic. A remedy for 


Irregular. 
Irregularitv. 


A remedy for 


Relating to the 


gout. 

Antasthmatic. 
asthma. 

Antemetic. A remedy for nausea. 
Antebrachial. 
forearm. 


Antelabia. Extremity of the lips. 

A ntenn a ri a M a roar it a c e a . 
The plant commonly called “ Ever¬ 
lasting.” The leaves are used medi¬ 
cinally. 

Anterior. Before ; situated in 
front. 

Ante version of the Uterus. 
Inclining fonvard of that organ. 

Anthelmintic. A worm-de¬ 
stroyer. 

Anthemic Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained from AntJiemis arvensis. 

Antiiemis. The chamomile. 

vAnthorisna. An indefinitely ex- 
tended tumor. 

Antiioxanthum Odoratum. A 
plant which yields an odorous princi¬ 
ple identical with the conmarin of 
the tonka bean. 

Anthracene. A colorless, in¬ 
soluble solid obtained from the dis¬ 
tillation of coal. 

Anthracite. A hard, compact 
variety of coal. 

Anthrakokali. A preparation 
formed by adding 160 parts por- 
phyrized mineral coal to 192 parts 
of a concentrated and boiling solu¬ 
tion of caustic potassa contained in 
an iron vessel, the whole stirred to¬ 
gether. When completed it is taken 
from the fire, and the stirring con¬ 
tinued until the whole is converted 
into a homogeneous black powder. 

Anthranilic Acid. An acid 
formed by the action of bromine on 
benzoic acid. It is identical with 
amido-bcnzoic acid. 

Anthracotypiius. The black 
plague. 

Antiiracosis. Carbuncle of the 
eyelids. 

Anthrax. Carbuncle. 

Antiirenus. Parasitic animals 
living upon the Spanish fly. 

Anthropology. The science of 
man, considered in his entire nature. 

Anthropophagus. (G.) A can¬ 
nibal. 

Anth ropomagnetimus. Animal 
magnetism. 






LEXICON. 


Anthroposcopia. Physiognomy. 

Anthypnotic. A remedy for 
sleeplessness. . 

Anti. A prefix, denoting against. 

Antiar. ( Upas Antiar.) A poi¬ 
son used by the natives of the East 
India islands for poisoning their ar¬ 
rows. Its active ingredient is a 
gum-resinous exudation, proceeding 
from incisions in the trunk of the 
A ntlaris toxicaria. 

Antiarin. The poisonous prin¬ 
ciple of Antiar. 

Anti arthritic. A remedy for 
diseases of the joints. 

Antiattrition. A lubricant, con¬ 
sisting of plumbago combined with 
some oily substance, designed to 
counteract friction in machinery. 

Antibrachial. Relating to the 
fore-arm. 

Antibilious. A remedy for bil¬ 
iousness. 

Antibromic. A remedy for of¬ 
fensive ordors. 

Anticachetic. A medicine tend¬ 
ing to correct an ill-habit of the body. 

Anticardum. The pit of the 
stomach. 

AntiCatarrhal. A remedy for 
catarrh. 

Anticausotic. • A remedy for 
high fever. 

Anticontagious. A disinfectant. 

Anticonvulsive. A remedy for 
spasms. 

Anticosmetic. Destructive to 
beauty. 

Anticnemion. The shin. 

Anticus. Anterior. 

Antidotal. That which coun¬ 
teracts poison. 

Antidynous. Anodyne. 

Antidysenteric. A remedy for 
dysentery. 

Antiemetic. A remedy for vom¬ 
iting. 

Antiepileptic. A remedy for 
epilepsy. 

Antifebral. A remedy for fever. 

Antiflatulent. A remedy for 
wind in the stomach. 


Antigalactic. A medicine re¬ 
pressing the secretion of milk. 

Antiguggler. A siphon intro¬ 
duced into the neck of a bottle for 
drawing off the liquor' without the 
sediment. 

Antihectic. A remedy for hec¬ 
tic diseases. 

Antiiielminticus. A remedy 
for worms. 

Antihelix. A projection upon 
the outer ear. 

Antiiiemorrhagic. A remedy 
for hemorrhage. 

Antihemorrhoidal. A remedv 
for piles. 

Antihydrophobic. A remedy 
for hydrophobia. 

Antiiiydropic. A remedy for 
dropsy. 

Antihypnotic. A remedy for 
sleepiness. 

Antihypochondriac. A rem¬ 
edy for depression of spirits, 

Anti hysteric. A remedy for 
hysteria. 

Antiicteric. A remedy for 
jaundice. 

Antilabium. Against the lips. 

Antilethargic. Opposed to 
sleep. 

Antilitiiic. A preventive of 
stone in the bladder. 

Antiloimic. A remedy for the 
plague. 

Antimephitic. A remedy 

%j 

against bad gases. 

Antimoniac. A preparation of 
antimony. 

Antimonial Powder. (James's 
Powder.) A medicinal powder com¬ 
posed of oxide of antimony and pre¬ 
cipitated phosphate of lime. 

Antimoniate of Potassa. A 
salt formed by the union of antimo¬ 
niac acid and potassa. A white in¬ 
visible powder. 

Antimoniated Hydrogen. A 
colorless, odorless, combustible gas 
formed by treating an alloy of zinc 
and antimony with hydrochloric 
acid. Formula, H 3 Sb. 




LEXICON. 


359 


Antimonic Acid. A yellow pow¬ 
der produced by digesting the metal 
in nitric acid and driving off excess 
of acid at a moderately high tem- 
perature. 

Antimonii et Potassae Tartras. 
(Tartar Emetic.) A salt formed by 
boiling together oxide of antimony 
and cream of tartar. Much used as 
a medicine but violently poisonous 
in large quantity. 

Antimonium. (See Antimony.) 

Antimony. Symbol, Sb. A 
bright bluish-white metal, exceed¬ 
ingly brittle and melting at 450°C. 
If heated strongly it burns with a 
white flame. It forms various use¬ 
ful alloys, of which type-metal (lead 
and antimony) is most important. 

Antimony Wine. A prepara¬ 
tion of tartar emetic and sherry 
wine. 

Antinephritic. A remedy for 
kidney-diseases. 

A NT i N E u R o p a t h i c . Nervine. 

Anti ne u r ot i c. Nervine. 

Antiodontalgia. A remedy for 
toothache. 

Antiparalytic. A remedy for 
palsy. 

Antipathia. Aversion. 

Antipathic. Opposed ; adverse. 

Anti periodic. A remedy for 
periodic diseases, such as ague. 

Anti peristaltic. Inverted ac¬ 
tion of intestines. 

Antiperistasis. The action by 
which a body attacked gains force 
bv opposition. 

‘ Antipernius. A remedy for 
chilblains. 

Antipertussis. A remedy for 
whooping-cough. 

Antiphlogistic. A remedy for 
fever. 

Antiphtheiriaca. A remedy for 
lice. 

Antipleuritic. A remedy for 
pleurisy. 

Antipodragic. A remedy for 
calculus. 

Antipsoric. A remedy for itch. 


Anti putrescent. A remedy for 
putrefaction ; an antispetic. 

Antipyic. A remedv for the for- 

•/ 

mation of pus. 

Antipyretic. A remedy for fever. 

Antipyrotic. A remedy for 
burns. 

Antiques. (L.) Chronic ; of 
long standing. 

Antirhachitic. A remedy for 
rickets. 

Anti rheumatic. A remedy for 
rheumatism. 

Antiscorbutic. A remedy for 
scurvy. 

Antiseptic. A remedy for pu¬ 
trefaction. 

Antisialagogue. A remedy for 
salivation. 

Antispasmodic. A remedv for 
convulsions. 

Antisplenitic, A remedy for 
diseases of the spleen. 

Antistasis. Antagonism ; oppo¬ 
sition. 

Antistrumatic. A remedy for 

scrofula. 

Antisypiiilitic. A remedy for 

syphilis. 

Antitasis. Counter extension. 

Antitherma. A cooler. 

Antitypicus. Antiperiodic. 

Anti venereal. A remedy for 
venereal diseases. 

Anti v ermicular. Opjiosed to the 
downward movement of the bowels. 

Antizymic. Opposed to fermen¬ 
tation. 

Antizymotic. A destroyer of mi¬ 
croscopic beings which are hostile to 
human health. 

Antlia. A syringe. 

Antodynus. An anodyne. 

Antonii Sancti Ignis. (L.) 

(Saint Anthony's Fire.) Erysipelas. 

Antozone. The state of oxygen 
as it exists in the peroxide of hydro¬ 
gen. 

Antrum. A cavern; hollow in 
bones. 

Antrum Auris Tympanum. (L.) 
Labvrinth of the ear. 







LEXICON. 


360 

Antrum of Highmore. Cavity 
in the upper jaw. 

Anus. The orifice of the rectum. 

Aochlesia. Calmness. 

Aorta. The great artery, given 
off from the left side of the heart, 
divided into the ascending aorta, 
the arch of the aorta and the de¬ 
scending aorta. See plate. 

Aortic. Pertaining to the aorta. 

Aortitis. Inflammation of the 
arota. 

Aortra. A lobe of the lungs. 

Apanthropia. (G.) Man-hatred. 

Apatite. Native phosphate of 
lime. 

Apeciima. (G.) A counter-blow. 

A pella. A prepuce which does 
not cover the glanspenis. 

Apepsia. (G.) Dyspepsia; indi¬ 
gestion. 

Aperient. A laxative medicine. 

Aperitive Saffron of Mars. 
(See Carbonate of Iron, Precipitate.) 

Apetalous. Having no petals. 

Apitheresis. (G.) Cutting off. 

Aphlexia. (G.) Mental abstrac¬ 
tion. 

Aphodus. (G.) Excrement. 

Aphlogistic. Flameless. 

Aphonia. (G.) Loss of voice. 

Aphrodisiac. A medicine sup¬ 
posed to excite venereal desire. 

Aphthae. White ulcers in the 
throat. 

Aphthous. Affected with aph¬ 
thae. 

A pun. A peculiar gelatinous 
substance, resembling pectic acid in 
appearance, obtained from the par¬ 
sley herb. 

Apiol. A substance obtained 
from parsley seed. 

Apilepsy. Apoplexy. 

Apirina. An alkaloid obtained 
from the seeds of Cocos lapidea. It 
is white* inodorous, of a sharp taste 
and fusible. 

ApisMellifica. (L.) The honey¬ 
bee. 

Apium Petroselinum. (L.) Com¬ 
mon. parsley. 


Aplastic. Not capable of form¬ 
ing an organ. 

Aplotomy. A simple incision. 

Apncea. (G.) Suffocation. 

Apo. A prefix, meaning from. 

Apocopi. (G.) Eunuchs. 

Apocrustic. A constringent med¬ 
icine. 

Apocynin. An active principle 
from the root of Indian hemp. 

Apodemialgia. (G.) Home¬ 
sickness, nostalgia. 

Apogonum. A living fetus. 

Apomorpiiia. A salt obtained bv 
digesting morphia in concentrated 
hydrochloric acid at a high tempera¬ 
ture for several hours. It differs 
from morphia in containing an 
equivalent less of hydrogen and oxy¬ 
gen. 

Apomyxia. Mucus of the nose. 

Aponeurosis. A fibrous mem¬ 
brane similar in structure to the 
tendons. 

Aponeurotic Fascia. A dense, 
fibrous membrane forming sheaths 
for the muscles, and affording them 
broad surfaces for attachment. 

Aponia. Freedom from pain. 

Apophlegmatic. A medicine in¬ 
ducing the discharge of phlegm. 

Apophthora. (G.) An abortion. 

Apophysis. The projecting end 
of a bone. 

Apoplexia. Apoplexy. A dis¬ 
ease caused by pressure on the brain. 

Apopnixis. (G.) Suffocation. 

Aposia. Lack of thirst. 

Apositia. (G.) Distaste for food. 

Apositic. A destroyer of appetite. 

Apostaxis. Distillation. 

Aposteme. An abscess. 

Apotokus. (G.) An abortive 
fetus. 

Apotoma. (G.) Amputation. 

Apozem. A decoction. 

Apparatus. A set of instru¬ 
ments for performing an operation 
or experiment. 

Appendicula Vermiformis. (L.) 
A wormlike excrescence upon the in¬ 
testine. 




LEXICON. 


361 


Appendicula Cerebri. (L.) The 
pituitary gland. 

Appert’s Process. A process of 
sealing bottles, which consists in 
heating and sealing when quite full. 

Appetence. Desire. 

Appetite. Desire of gratifica¬ 
tion, either of the body or the mind. 

Approximate. Nearest to ; next; 
near to. Approximate principles are 
those which are nearly, but not ab¬ 
solutely equal. 

Apyretic. ) Intermission of fe- 

Apyrexia. f ver. 

Apyrous. Incombustible, or that 
which sustains a strong heat without 
alteration of form or properties. 
Apyrous bodies differ from those 
simply refractory ; the latter bodies 
cannot be fused by heat, but may be 
altered. 

Aqua. (Latin for water.) Water. 

Bulliens ; boiling water. 

Calcis ;. lime water. 

Distillata ; distilled water. 

Ex Nive ; snow water. 

Fervens ; hot water. 

Fontana; spring water. 

Fortis ; nitric acid. 

Glacies ; ice water. 

Marina ; sea water. 

Picea ; tar water. 

Pluvialis ; rain water. 

Regia ; nitro muriatic acid. 

Sodacia; soda water. 

Tepida ; lukewarm water. 

Aquatic. Living in the water. 

Aquatinta. A process of etch¬ 
ing. 

Aqueductus. (L.) A canal in the 
human bodv. 

V 

Aqueous. Watery. 

Aqueous Humor. Watery fluid 
occupying the anterior and posterior 
chambers of the eye. 

Aquose. Aqueous. 

Aquiform. Of watery form. 

Aquilegia. The plant Colum¬ 
bine. It is said to be diuretic, di¬ 
aphoretic, and antiscorbutic, but 
possesses dangerous properties. 

Arabic Acid. (Arabin.) Pure 


gum or arabin consists of a sub¬ 
stance soluble in water, having acid 
properties combined with about 3 
per cent of lime, forming a soluble 
salt. It may be obtained in a solu¬ 
ble state by decomposing gum arabic 
by means of oxalic acid, which sep¬ 
arates the lime without modifying 
the condition of the acid. 

Arabin. (See Arabic Acid.) 

Arachic Acid. An acid obtained 
from peanut oil. 

Arachnitis. Inflammation of 
the arachnoid. 

Arachnoid. (Greek, arachne , 
et a spider .”) The cobweb-like 
serous membrane between the outer 
; and inner membranes of the brain. 
(See Dura Ala ter and Pia Mater.) 

A rack. A spirituous liquor made 
in the East Indies from the fer- 
mented juice of the cocoanut and 
rice. 

A raneo us. Resembling a cobweb. 

Araucaria Dombeyi. (L.) A spe¬ 
cies of turpentine obtained in Chili. 

Arbor Dianne. (L.) (Tree of 
Diana.) An arborescent precipita¬ 
tion of silver, made by adding mer¬ 
cury to a solution of nitrate of silver. 

Arbor Saturni. (L.) An arbores¬ 
cent precipitation of lead made by 
suspending a piece of zinc in a solu¬ 
tion of acetate of lead. 

Arbor ViTiE. (L.) An indigenous 
evergreen tree. 

Arbor Vit.e. (Tree of Life.) 
The name given to a leaf-like ap¬ 
pearance of the cerebellum when cut # 
vertically. 

Arboresence. A tree-shape. 

Arborescent. Resembling a tree. 

Arbutin. A crystalline gluco- 
side obtained from bearberry. 

Arcanum. (L.) A secret medicinal 
remedy. 

Arceutiios. Juniper. 

Arch of the Aorta. The turn 
made in the thorax by the aorta. 

Arch of the Colon. Trans¬ 
verse portion of that intestine. 

Arches of the Palate. Anterior 







362 


LEXICON. 


and posterior curtains on each side 
of the throat. 

Archiater. (G.) A chief physi¬ 
cian. 

Archil. (See Litmus.) 

A rchim AG la. Chemistry. 

Archimedes Principle. The j 
law that a body immersed in water I 
displaces a quantity of liquid equal! 
to itself. 

Arctura Unguis. (L.) Ingrow¬ 
ing nails. 

Arctuvine. A substance ob¬ 
tained by boiling arbutin with sul¬ 
phuric acid. 

Ardas, Excrement. 

Ardent. Heating; burning. 

Ardor. Heat. 

Ardor Urinhc. (L.) Scaldinginj 
urination. 

Ardor Ventriculi. (L.) Heart¬ 
burn. 

Arefaction. Making dry. 

Arena. (L.) Gravel; sand. 

Arenaceous. Sandy. 

Arenation. A sand bath. 

Arenitis. Dryness. 

Areola. A colored circle. An 
opening between tissues. 

Areolar Tissue. Loose con¬ 
nective tissue continuous over the 
whole body. 

Areometer. An instrument for 
determining the specific gravity of 
liquids. 

Areotic. A medicine which at¬ 
tenuates the humors, dissolves vis¬ 
cidity, opens the pores, and increases 
.perspiration. 

Argal. Unrefined or crude tar¬ 
tar; a substance adhering to the 
sides of wine-casks. 

Argand-lamp. A lamp invented 
by Argand in 1780, in which, by 
means of a hollow wick and' a glass 
chimney, a strong and clear light is 
produced by placing the flame be¬ 
tween two currents of air. 

Argel. (Arguel.) The leaves of 
Cynanchum olecefolium, or C. argel , 
often mixed with senna. It grows 
in Upper Egypt and Syria. 


Argental. Silvery. 

Argenti Chloridum. (Chloride 
of Silver.) A precipitate obtained 
by treating nitrate of silver with 
common salt. 

Argentine. Pertaining to sil¬ 
ver. 

Argentum. (L.) Silver. 

Argil. Pure clay. 

Argillaceous. Clay -like. 

Argol. A salt existing in grape- 
juice, from which is prepared cream 
of tartar, which see. 

Arguel. See Argel. 

Aribina. An alkaloid contained 
in Araribe rubra. 

Aricina. An alkaline substance 
obtained from Peruvian bark. 

Arid. Dry; parched. 

Armenian Bole. See Bole, Ar¬ 
menian. 

Arnica. A plant common on the 
mountains of Europe, with a fibrous, 
aromatic root. Its flowers are used 
to form a tincture which is used ex¬ 
ternally in bruises, etc. 

Arnicina. An alkali derived 
from arnica flowers. 

Arnotta. (See Annotto.) 

Aroma. A fragrant odor. 

o 

Aromatic. Fragrant; spicy. 

Aromatize. To fill with fra¬ 
grance. 

Aroph. (See Saffron.) 

Arrack. (See Arack.) 

Arrhoea. The suppression of a 
flux. 

Arrow Root. A principle of the 
root-stalk of the Maranta arun- 
dinacea. It is very nutritious and 
easily digested. 

Arts. (L.) An art. 

Arsaltos. Asphalt. 

A rsatum . Ny m phom ania. 

Arsenal. A collection of instru¬ 
ments. 

Arseniate. A salt formed bv 
arsenic acid combined with some 
base. 

Arsenic. A metal generally oc¬ 
curring in combination with iron, 
nickel, cobalt or sulphur. It is a 












LEXICON. 


greyish lustrous metal, soon tarnish¬ 
ing in the air. Specific gravity, 5.7. 
Symbol, As. 

Arsenical Paste. A preparation 
used upon ulcers, composed of sul- 
phu ret of mercury and arsenious acid. 

ArseniousAci n. (White arsenic.) 
Formed by burning metallic arsenic, 
or roasting arsenical pyrites. It is 
feebly soluble in water, tasteless and 
devoid of smell, but very poisonous. 

Arsenite. A salt formed by 
arsenious acid combined with some 
base. 

Arterial. Pertaining to the ar- 

O 

teries. 

Arterial Blood. The red blood 
of the body. 

Arterial Duct. The duct lead¬ 
ing from the pulmonary artery to the 
aorta in the fetus. 

Arterial Ligament. The ar¬ 
terial duct obliterated after birth. 

Arterial Stimulants. Agents 
which exhibit their action chiefly on 
the heart and arteries. 

Arteriotomy. Cutting an artery 
for blood-letting. 

Arteritis. Inflamation of the 
arteries. 

Artery. (Greek aer, “air” tereo 
“ to hold ”.) The vessels which con- 
•vey t lie red, or arterial blood from 
the heart. Named arteries from the 
fact that they are usually found 
empty after death and hence formerly 
supposed to contain only air. 

Arthralgia. (G.) Neuralgic 
pains in the joints. 

Arthritis. Inflammation of the 
joints. 

Arthrodia. A movable joint. 

Arthrosia. The gout. 

Arthronalgia. (G.) Pain in a 
joint. 

Arthrosis. Joining. 

Articular. Belonging to the 
joints. 

Articulation. The joining and 
manner of connection between two 
or more bony parts, whether they be 
movable one upon anotner or not. 


Artificial Bone Black. Wood 
charcoal treated with phosphate of 
lime and hydrochloric acid. 

Artificial Camphor. A com¬ 
pound resulting from the absorp¬ 
tion of hydrochloric acid by oil of 
turpentine. 

Artificial Fruit Essence. — 

I Compound ethers with fruit flavor. 

Artificial Gum. (See Dextrin.) 

Artificial Oil of Bitter Alm¬ 
onds. Nitrobenzol, possessing the 
same odor as bitter almonds. 

Artificial Soda. Common salt 

converted into sulphate of soda by 

sulphuric acid, and this reduced to 

sodium carbonate bv carbonate of 

«/ 

lime and charcoal. 

ARYTAENO-E PI GLOTTIC I. (L.) 
Small muscles of the larynx. 

Aryt.enoid. (Greek, aruiainn , 
“a ewer.”) A name given to two tri¬ 
angular cartilrges of the larvnx from 

O CD 

their supposed resemblance to a 
water-ewer. 

Asafetida. A resinous fetid sub¬ 
stance obtained by incisions in the 
root of the Ferula asafetida. Easily 
soluble in vinegar and egg-yolk. 

Asbestos. (Incremable flax; Sal¬ 
amander’s wool.) An incombustible 
silicate of magnesia, in white filiform 
masses, which was used by the Ro¬ 
mans to prevent admixture of ashes 
in cremation. 

Asbolin. A bitter yellow oil ob¬ 
tained from soot. 

Ascarides. Small worms in the 
lower intestine. 

Ascendens. (L.) A portion of the 
aorta. 

Ascites. Effusion within the ab¬ 
domen. 

Asclepin. An emetic principle 
contained within the root of the 
white swallow-wort. 

Asclepione. The principal solid 
ingredient of the juice of milk-weed. 

Asepsis. The state of being asep- 
| tic. 

Aseptic. Non - putrifying ; not 
poisonous from dead matter. 








364 


' LEXICON. 


Asiatic Pills. Pills composed 
of arsenious acid and black pepper. 

Aspalathus A fragrant wood 
found in the Canary islands, yield¬ 
ing an essential oil with the odor of 
roses. 

Asparagin. A crystallized prin¬ 
ciple obtained from the asparagus. 

Asparamide. • (See Asparagfti.) 

Asparmic Acid. (Aspartic Acid.) 
A concrete crystalline acid obtained 
by the action of strong acids on as- 
paragin, and composed of carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. 

Aspartate. A compound of as¬ 
partic acid with a base. 

Aspartic Acid. (See Asparmic 
Acid.) 

Aspera Arteria. (L.) The wind¬ 
pipe. 

Asperity. A roughness of the 
bones serving for attachment. 

Aspiialtum. (Bitumen Judai- 
cum, Jew’s Pitch.) x\ smooth, hard, 
brittle black or brown substance, 
melts easily when heated, and, when 
pure, burns without leaving any 
ashes. It has little taste and scarcely 
any smell unless heated, when it 
emits a strong smell of pitch. It is 
found in a liquid or soft state on the 
surface of the Dead Sea. It is 
found also in the earth in many 
parts of Asia, Europe and America. 
Formerly it was used for embalming 
dead bodies. 

Aspiiurelata. Certain fusible 
semi-metallic fossils. 

Asphyxia. Literally, pulseless¬ 
ness. A suspended animation. (See 
Diseases.) 

Aspic. A French Lavender, from 
which is extracted a useful oil. 

Aspidin. The impure active 
principle of the male fern. 

Aspiration The drawing in of 
air. 

Aspirator. An instrument used 
for drawing out the fluid contents of 
tumors, serous effusions, collections 
of pus, etc. It somewhat resembles 
a sub-cutaneous injection syringe. 


Assacou. A BraziIlian tree yield¬ 
ing an intoxicating juice. 

Assafcetida. (See Asafetida.) 

Assamar. A bitter substance, 
contained in burnt sugar. 

Assay. The determination of the 
quantity of a metal in any ore or 
alloy. 

Assimilation. Conversion of 
food into organic tissues. 

Asthenia. (G.) Lack of strength; 
debility; feebleness. 

Asthenopia. (G.) Weakness of 
the eyes. 

Asthenic. Strengthless. 

Asthma. A disease in which 
there is difficulty in respiration. 

Asthomus. Without a mouth. 

Astragalus. The ankle-bone. 

Astral. Star-like. 

Astral Lamp. An argand lamp, 
having the oil in a flattened ring sur¬ 
mounted by a ground-glass shade. 

Astringent. A medicine which 
causes contraction of the soft mus¬ 
cles. 

Ataxic. Irregular : nervous. 

Athamantin. A peculiar prin¬ 
ciple, obtained from mountain pars¬ 
ley. 

Athanor. A furnace with a side- 
receptacle for fuel, which maintains 
a continuous supply. 

Atheroma. (G.) A pulpy, en¬ 
cysted tumor. 

Atheromatous. Like an athe¬ 
roma. 

Atherospermin. An alkaloid, 
obtained from the Australian sassa¬ 
fras. 

Athletic. Ahgorous and muscu¬ 
lar. 

Atlas. The first vertebra of the 
neck. 

Atmospheric Pressure. The 
pressure exercised by the air, equal¬ 
ling about fifteen pounds to the 
square inch. 

Atloido-Axoid. Relating to the 

9 o 

atlas and the axis. 

Atloido-occipital. Relating to 
the atlas or occiput. 







LEXICON. 


365 


Atom. A small, indivisible por¬ 
tion of matter. 

Atomic Theory. The theory that 
chemical combination consists in the 
approximation of individual atoms to 
each other according to their atomic 
weights. 

Atomic Weight. The weight; of 
the different atomic elements in ref¬ 
erence to the weight of an atom of 
hydrogon. 

Atomize. To reduce to atoms. 

Atomizer. An instrument for re¬ 
ducing liquids to a fine spray. 

Atony. Debility. 

Atra- bilious. Melancholy. 

Atresia. Imperf oration. 

Atropa Belladonna. (Deadly 
nightshade.) A common European 
plant, possessing active poisonous 
properties. Its fruits are especially 
dangerous from their resemblance to 
a species of cherry. 

Atrophy. Lack of nourishment; 
wasting. 

Atropia. An alkaloid of bella¬ 
donna. 

Atropic Acid. An uncrystal - 
lizable acid formed from atropine by 
the action of alkalies. 

Attaleh. The tree yielding Bar¬ 
bary gum. 

Attar of Roses. (Otto of Roses.) 
A volatile oil obtained from rose- 
leaves, used for perfumery and 
flavoring. 

Attenuant. A diluent. 

Attenuation. Thinness; divis¬ 
ion. 

Attitude. Posture; position. 

Attolens. (L.) A lifter; name 
of certain muscles. 

Attrahens. (L.) Muscles of 
the ear. 

Attraction. The force which 
causes particles of matter to approach 
each other. 

Attritus. Rubbing together; 
chafing. 

Atyptic. Irregular. 

Atypos. (G.) Without type; 
irregular. 


Auansis. Drying. 

Auditory. (Latin, audio “ to 
hear.”) Belonging to the parts of 
hearing. 

O 

Aume. A Dutch measure, equiva¬ 
lent to forty gallons. 

Aura Epileptica. A warning 
preceding an attack of epilepsy. 

Aurantii Oleum. The "oil of 
orange flowers, obtained by distil¬ 
lation. 

Aurate. A combination of auric 
acid with some base. 

Auric Acid. An acid obtained 
by decomposing the sesquichloride 
of gold by potassa, and precipitating 
the acid by hydrochloric acid. 
Formula, Au 2 0 3 . 

Auricles. From their supposed 
resemblance to ears, a name given 
to the two upper cavities of the 
heart. (See plate 6.) 

Auricula. (Latin, auris “ an 
ear. ”) The prominent part of the ear. 

Auricular. Pertaining to the 
ear. 

Auricularis Abductor. (L.) A 
muscle of the little finger. 

Auriculo-ventricular Valves. 
Certain valves of the heart. 

Auriculum Retrahentes. (L.) 
Muscles of the ear. 

Aurigo. Jaundice. 

Auri Pigmentum. The sesqui- 
sulphuret of arsenic. 

Auris. (L.) The ear. 

Aurist. An ear surgeon. 

Aurium Tinnitus. (L.) A ring¬ 
ing in the ears. 

Aurium sordes. (L.) Ear wax. 

Aurugo. (See Aurigo.) 

Aurum. (L.) Gold. 

Auscultation. The art of diag¬ 
nosis by listening to the sound of 
the lungs and other organs. 

Australian Gum. A somewhat 
insoluble Australian species of gum 
arabic. 

Autocracy. The power over 
one's organism. The vital principle. 

Automatic. Actions which are 
not dependent upon the mind. 





360 


LEXICON. 


Autoplastic. The art of trans¬ 
planting skin. 

Autopsia Cadaveris. (L.) (See 
Autopsy.) 

Autopsy. An examination of a 
dead body for the determination of 
the cause of death. 

Ava. An intoxicating drink of 
the Sandwich Islands, prepared from 
a native root. 

Avena Sativa. The oat. 

A yens. ( Geum urbanum.) A 
European plant with an aromatic 
root, sometimes used medicinally. 

Averuncate. To tear out by 
the roots. 

Avoirdupois. A weight whose 
pound contains sixteen ounces. Its 
proportion to a pound Troy is as 17 
to 14. 

Avortin. Abortion. 

Axilla . The angle formed by a 
branch and its stem. 

Axillary. Pertaining to the 
arm-pit. 

Axis. A right line which passes 
through the center of a body. (See 
Plate 1.) 

Axis Cylinder of Nerve. The 
central portion of the fibrils of tubu¬ 
lar nerve fiber, surrounded bv med- 
nil ary substance. 

Axis Vessels. (See Coelic Axis.) 

Axunge. Prepared lard. 

Azobenzole. A compound ob¬ 
tained from anilin. 

Azoic. Destitute of life. 

Azolitinin. One of the coloring 
matters of litmus. 

Azote. That which cannot sus¬ 
tain life. An old name for nitrogen. 

Azotic Acid. (See Nitric Acid.) 

Azotite. (Nitrite.) A salt formed 
bv the combination of nitrous acid 
with a base. 

Azotized. Nitrogenized. 

Azure. The blue color of the sky. 

Azygos. (G-.) Without a sim¬ 
ilar one; a name given to certain 
veins. 

Azymous. Unleavened; unfer¬ 
mented. 


B. 

Ba. Symbol for barium. 

Bacciiica. (L.) Ivy. 

Bacciferous. Berry-bearing. 

Baccillum. A little berry. 

Bacillus. (A staff.) A genus 
of vegetable infusoria. 

Bacteria. (See Bacterium.) 

Bacterium. (Plural, Bacteria.) 
A genus of infusoria, among the low¬ 
est forms of life, which swarm in all 
putrefying solutions of organic mat¬ 
ter. (See Sec. 5.) 

Bacterium Termo. One of the 
most common species of Bacterium. 

Bagnio. A bath-house. 

Bahel. A plant of Malabar. 

BaltENIC Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained from whale-oil. 

Balanitis. Inflammation occur¬ 
ring in the mucous membrane lining 
the prepuce. 

Balanus. An acorn; glans pe¬ 
nis. 

Balbus. (L.) Tongue-tied. 

Ballottement. Falling back of 
the foetus; a diagnosis of pregnancy. 

Balm. The medicinal herb Me¬ 
lissa officinalis. 

Balm of Gilead. (See Amyris 
Gileaclensis .) 

Balm of Gilead Tree. (See 
A bies ba Isamea .) 

Balm of Mummies. A prepara¬ 
tion from human mummies, used in 
ancient times as a medicine and an¬ 
tidote to poisons of all kinds. 

Balmony. SnakeVhead; a bit¬ 
ter herb. 

Balneum. (L.) A bath. 

Balsam, Canada. (See Abies 
balsamea .) 

Balsam, Carpathian. A pro¬ 
duct of the Siberian stone-pine of the 
Alps and Carpathian mountains. 

Balsam of Copaiva. (See Co- 
paiva.) 

Balsam of Fir. (Sqq Abies bal¬ 
samea and Antiseptics.) 

Balsam of Gilead . (See Amyris 
Gileaclensis .) 








LEXICON. 


Balsam, Hungarian. A balsam 
obtained from the Pinus' pumilio, 
resembling oil of juniper. 

Balsam of Peru. ( Balsamum 
Peruvianum .) The prepared juice 
of Myrospermum Peruiferum, or 
Myroxylon Peruiferum , a tree grow¬ 
ing in Central America. It is a 
viscid, syrup-like substance, of a 
dark reddish-brown color, a fragrant 
odor and bitterish taste. 

Balsam Riga; ( Balsamum Car- 
paticum, Balsamum Libani.) A pro¬ 
duct of Pinus cembra, a large tree 
growing in Europe and Asia. It has 
an odor like that of juniper and pos¬ 
sesses like properties. 

Balsam of Sulphur. (Sulphur¬ 
ated oil.) A name formerly given 
to a substance resulting from the re- 
action of sulphur upon olive oil at a 
high temperature. 

Balsam of Tolu. ( Balsamum 
Tolutanum .) The juice of Myros¬ 
permum toluiferum, or Myroxylon 
toluiferum. It is a stimulant tonic, 
with a peculiar tendency to the 
pulmonary organs. 

Balsam Weed. (Impaliens Fulva 
and Impatiens Pallida , Touch-me- 
not.) Succulent plants, known by 
their tender, juicy, almost trans¬ 
parent stems. It is an emetic and 
cathartic. 

Balsam, White. (See Balsam of 
Peru.) 

Balsamic. Having the qualities 
of balsam. 

Balsamiferous. Producing bal¬ 
sam. 

Balsamodendron Myrrh a. A 
small tree growing in Arabia Felix. 
The juice, which exudes spontane¬ 
ously and concretes upon the bark, 
constitutes the gum myrrh of com¬ 
merce. 

Balsamum Mortuorum. (L.) 
Strong tincture of myrrh and aloes. 

Bandage. A strip of linen or 
flannel used for binding or compres¬ 
sing a part of the body. 

Bandoline. Prepared from gum 


tragacanth, six ounces, roce water, 
one gallon, otto of rose, a half 
ounce. The gum to be steeped in 
the water and agitated as it swells. 

The soft mass to be carefully 
pressed through coarse linen cloth 
and the otto of rose thoroughly 
mixed. 

Bane. Deadly poison. 

Bang. The larger leaves and 
seed-cases of Indian hemp. 

Barbadoes Aloes. (See Aloe 
Barbadensis. 

Barbadoes Leg. Elephantiasis. 

Barbadoes Huts. The seeds of 
the Jatroplia curcas yielding an oil 
similar to croton oil. 

Barbadoes Petroleum. (See 
Barbadoes Tar.) 

Barbadoes Tar. A thick min¬ 
eral fluid of nauseous taste and 
strong smell,.viscid, and of dark color, 
used in coughs and lung diseases. 

Barbary Gum. (See Attaleh.) 

Barbate. Bearded. 

Barium. Metallic basis of heavy 
spar. 

Barii Chloridum. Chloride of 
barium. A white soluble salt of 
disagreeable taste. 

Barii Iodium. Iodide of barium. 
A chemical compound formed by 
double decomposition from carbonate 
of baryta and iodide of iron; used in 
scrofulous troubles. 

Barilla. Impure soda-ash from 
which carbonate of soda is obtained, 
used in making soap and glass and 
bleaching. Obtained from burning 
certain plants. 

Bark. The exterior covering of 
a tree corresponding to the skin of 
an animal. This is composed of the 
cuticle or epidermis, the outer bark 
or cortex, and the inner bark or 
liber. The rough, broken matter on 
bark is sometimes called ross. 

Bark, Calisaya. (Yellow Cin¬ 
chona Bark.) A variety of Peruvian 
bark containing not less than two 
per cent o t alkaloids yielding crys- 
tallizable salts. 





o08 


LEXICON. 


Bark, Pale. {Cinchona Pallida.) 
The bark of Cinchona condaminea 
and of Cinchona micrantha, a species 
of Peruvian bark. 

Bark, Bed. (Cinchona Rubra.) 
The bark of an undetermined species 
of cinchona, containing not less than 
two per cent of alkaloids yielding 
crystallizable salts. 

Barolite. Carbonate of baryta. 

Barometer. An instrument to 
measure the weight of the air. 

Barras. The resin which exudes 
from wounds made in the barks of 
fir trees. 

Barrows. Hills or mounds of 
earth, designed as repositories for 
the dead. 

Baryta. A heavy alkaline earth; 
an oxide of barium. 

Baryta Carbonate. 

Baryta Sulphate. 

Baryta Muriate. 

Chlorulum.) 


[• (SeeBaryta.) 
(See Barii 




Baryta Water. A reagent 
formed by the solution of barvta in 

4/ 

water. 

Barytina. A vegetable alkaloid 
said to be contained in white helle¬ 
bore, named from its being precipi¬ 
tated like baryta from its solution in 
acetic acid by sulphuric acid. 

Basal. Pertaining to the base. 

Base. Any alkaline or earthly 
substance, combining with an acid, 
forms a compound qr salt, of which 
it is the base. 

Basement Membrane. A deli¬ 
cate structureless membrane, found 
beneath the epidermis or epithelium. 

Basic. This term is often applied 
to a salt in which the base is in ex¬ 
cess or constitutes a large proportion 
of the neutral salt. 

Basil. A medicinal herb. 

Basilar Process. A process on 
the occipital bone. 

Basilary. Pertaining to the base. 

Basilic Vein. A vein at the 
bend of the arm. 

Basilicon. An ointment made 
of wax, resin, etc. 


Basilicus. Syphilis. 

Basioglossi. Two muscles de¬ 
pressing the tongue. 

Basiopharyngei. Muscles of 
the os hyoides. 

Bastard. Illegitimate; delusive 
symptoms applied to certain diseases 
resembling others. 

Bath. A vessel placed over a fire 
and filled with any substance, into 
which another vessel is placed con¬ 
taining matters for digestion, evap¬ 
oration, or distillation. 

Batiimis. Base; support. 

Battarismus. Stammering. 

Battement. (F.) Pulse. 

Battery. A number of coated 
electrical jars placed in such a man¬ 
ner that they may be charged at the 
same time, and discharged in the 
same manner. 

A galvanic battery is a pile or ser¬ 
ies of plates of copper and zinc, or 
of any substance susceptible of gal¬ 
vanic action. 

Baume's Hydrometer. An instru¬ 
ment used by apothecaries for deter¬ 
mining the specific gravity of liquids. 

Bayberry Tallow. A white, 
cerous substance obtained from the 
bayberry or wax myrtle. 

Bay Leaves. The leaves of the 
Laurus nobilis. They are fragrant 
and aromatic in taste, and yield a 
volatile oil upon distillation. 

Bay Rum. A spirit obtained by 
distilling the leaves of the Myrcia 
acris in rum. 

Bay Salt. A salt which forms 
upon the surface of water contain¬ 
ing saline matter in solution under 
the action of natural heat. 

Bdellium. A dark -colored gum 
produced in the East Indies and 
Arabia, used as a perfume and medi¬ 
cine. 

Bean of Calabar. A poisonous 
bean produced by the Physostigma 
venenosum. It has been used in te¬ 
tanus and paralysis. 

Bean of St. Ignatius. The 
seed of a tree native of the Philip- 




LEXICON. 


369 


pine Islands, and acting like mix 
vomica. 

Bebeerije Sulphas. (Sulphate of 
Bebeeria.) A tonic used in uterine 
diseases. 

Bebeekic Acid. A white crys¬ 
talline acid obtained from the seeds 
of the Nectandra. 

Bebeerin. ) An alkaloid of the 

Bebeeria. j bark of the Nec¬ 
tandra tree. 

Beech Drops. ) Oil obtained from 

Beech Oil. \ beech-nuts and 
used in parts of France in place of 
butter. 

Begonia. A genus of plants. 

Behenic Acid. An acid from 
Belien oil. possessing the formula 
C 22 H 44 0 2 . 

Behenolic Acid. An acid formed 
by the action of an alcoholic solu¬ 
tion of potassa upon the bromide of 
erucic acid. It is similar to stear- 
olic acid. 

Belladonna. (See Atropa.) 

Belladonin. An alkaline prin¬ 
ciple obtained from belladonna. 

Belloavs Sound. The blowing 
of the lungs recognized in ausculta¬ 
tion. 

Ben,. I A nut, the fruit of the 

Ben-Nut. j’ Morynga pterygo- 
sperma, yielding an oil called oil of 
ben. The nut attains the size of a 
filbert, and posseses purgative prop¬ 
erties. 

Bene. A name of the Sesamum 
orientate or oil plant. 

Benic Acid. An acid obtained 
by the saponification of the oil of 
ben. 

Benne Leaf. The leaves of Ses¬ 
amum Indicum and of S. orientate. 
They impart a gummy matter to 
water, forming a mucilage, used in 
the South as a drink in complaints 
to which demulcents are applicable. 

Benne Oil. ( Otewrn Sesami.) 
The oil of the seeds of Sesamum 
Indicum and S. orientate. It some¬ 
what resembles olive oil in its prop¬ 
erties. 

34 


Benzene. ( Benzine , Phene , IIy- 
druret of Phenyt.) A Hydrocarbon 
of a definite composition, origi¬ 
nally prepared bv distilling benzoic 
acid Avith lime, but afterward dis¬ 
covered to be a constituent of coal- 
gas tar, which, Avhen distilled, fur¬ 
nishes coat naphtha , or the commer¬ 
cial benzine, a complex substance, 
containing a number of carbohydro- 
gens, among which is benzole. Its 
composition is C 6 H 6 . 

Benzinated Lard. Lard pre¬ 
pared for preservation by adding to 
one thousand parts of it, when 
melted, sixty parts of a tincture of 
benzoin, or poplar buds, or guaiac 
prepared by percolation from one 
part of the drug to four of alcohol, 
agitating the mixture till it cools. 

Benzine. (See Benzene.) 

Benzoate. A salt formed by the 
union of benzoic acid with any sali¬ 
fiable base. 

Benzoate of Soda. ( Sodce 
Benzoas.) A salt prepared by sat¬ 
urating a solution of benzoic acid 
Avith a solution of carbonate of soda. 
Used in gout and rheumatism. 

Benzoic Acid. (See Acid, Ben¬ 
zoic.) 

Benzoin. (Gum Benzoin.) A 
resinous juice, floAving from the 
Styrax benzoin. By heat or partial 
decomposition it yields benzoic acid. 
It flows from incisions made in the 
stems or branches. It is solid or 
brittle, sometimes in yellowish white 
tears joined together by a brown 
substance. 

Benzoin Floavers. (FloAvers of 
Benzoin.) A name formerly applied 
to benzoic acid, from the mode of 
preparing by sublimation. 

Benzoin Odoriferum. (Laurus 
Benzoin, Spice Bush, Fever Bush.) 
A shrub growing in all parts of this 
country, having a spicy, agreeable 
flavor, Avhich is strongest in the bark 
and berries. 

Benzole. (See Benzene.) 

Benzolic Acid. An acid formed 








370 


LEXICON. 


by heating potassa dissolved in alco¬ 
hol with benzole. 

Benzonitril. One of the prod¬ 
ucts of naphthalin, which becomes 
benzoate of soda when boiled with a 
solution of caustic soda. 

Benzoyl. The radical of ben- 
zonic acid. 

Benzyl. A compound radical 
contained in the oil of bitter al¬ 
monds. 

Berberin. ( Berberina .) An al¬ 
kaloid obtained from the root of the 
common barberry. 

Berbina. An alkiloid obtained 
from the root of the barberry; not 
identical with Berberin. 

Bergamot. A fragrant citron 
whose rind yields an oil used for 
perfumers. 

Beriberi. A spasmodic disease 
of India. 

Berlin Blue. (See Prussian 
Blue.) 

Beta. The beet. 

Betula. Birch. 

Betulin. A peculiar white prin¬ 
ciple, ranked among the sub-resins, 
obtained from the bark of the Betula 
alba or European birch by the aid of 
alcohol. 

Bezoar. A name given to con¬ 
cretions or calculi formed in the 
stomach or intestines of animals, 
which were formerly thought to 
possess great medical virtues. 

Bezoar Mineral. A prepara¬ 
tion of oxide of antimony, produced 
by distilling the nitrous acid several 
times to dryness from the sublimated 
muriate of antimony. 

Bi. Bi in composition denotes 
that the compound contains two 
parts or equivalents of the first men¬ 
tioned ingredient to one of the 
other. 

Bi-Acid. Capable of combining 
with two parts or equivalents. 

Bibasic Phosphate of Soda. 
Phosphate of soda deprived of its 
basic water by heat. 

Bibasic Phosphoric Acid. One 


of the isomeric conditions assumed 
by phosphoric acid in its production 
by heat. 

Biborate of Soda. (See Borax.) 

Bibromide of Mercury. An 
irritant poison obtained by digesting 
the protobromide of mercury in wa¬ 
ter containing bromide. 

Bibulous. Spongy; absorbent; 
that has the quality of imbibing flu¬ 
ids or moisture; as bibulous paper. 

Bicarbonate. A carbonate con¬ 
sisting of two equivalents of carbon¬ 
ic acid to one of base; a supercarbo¬ 
nate . 

Bicarbonate of Potassa . Car¬ 
bonate of potassa combined with an 
additional equivalent of carbonic 
acid by passing a stream of the latter 
through a solution of the carbonate 
until it is saturated. 

Bicarbonate of Soda. Carbo¬ 
nate or sal soda united with an addi¬ 
tional equivalent of carbonic acid. 
It consists of two equivalents of car- 
| bonic acid, one of soda, and one of 
water. 

Biceps. Two-headed; applied to 
muscles. 

Bichloride of Carbon. (Chloro- 
carbon.) An anaesthetic similar in 
its effects to chloroform . 

Bichloride of Ethyl. (Bichlo¬ 
ride of Methylen, Chloromethyl.) 
An anaesthetic prepared by exposing 
to sunshine in a glass globe chlorine 
and gaseous chloride of methyl. 

Bichloride of Ethylen. (Dutch 
Liquid.) An anaesthetic compound 
resulting from the mutual action of 
chlorine and olefiant gas, and having 
the formula C 2 II 4 C1 2 . 

Bichloride of Mercury. (Cor¬ 
rosive Sublimate.) A powerful prep¬ 
aration of mercury, long used as a 
remedy in syphilis, in skin diseases, 
and in chronic rheumatism. It may 
be prepared by dissolving red precip¬ 
itate in muriatic acid, evaporating 
the solution to dryness, dissolving 
the dry mass in water, and crystal¬ 
lizing. 







LEXICON. 


o iy i 

O i I 


Bichloride of Methyl. 
Bichloride of Ethyl.) 

Bichromate. A salt containing 
two equivalents of chromic acid to 
one of base. 

Bichromate of Potassa. {Pot¬ 
asses Bichromas, Red Chromate of 
Potassa.) A salt prepared from the 
neutral or yellow chromate of potas¬ 
sa, by acidulating its solution with 
sulphuric acid, and setting aside for 
a day or two. It is used as an al¬ 
terative, emetic, an irritant, a caus¬ 
tic, and as a dye. 

Bicipital Groove. A groove on 
the humerus. 

Bicuspids. First molar teeth. 

Bicyanide of Mercury. (Prus- 
siate of Mercurv, Cvanide of Mercu- 
ry, Hydrargyri Cyanidum.) A prep¬ 
aration composed of one equivalent 
of mercury, and two of cyanogen. 
It is a violent poison, but it is some¬ 
times employed medicinally in lieu 
of corrosive sublimate. 

•Bidens. A genus of plants. 

Biennial. A botanical term 
descriptive of plants whose life ex¬ 
tends through two years. 

Bifurcate. To divide into two 
branches. 

Bilabiate. With two lips. 

Bilate of Soda. A sodium 
compound largely occurring in bile. 

Bilateral. Two-sided. 

Bile. Gall secreted by the liver. 

Biliary. Pertaining to bile. 

Bilifulvin. A salt of lime and 
soda in connection with a peculiar 
azotized acid which occurs in the 
bile of the ox. 

Bilifuscin. A blackish sub¬ 
stance obtained from human gall¬ 
stones. 

Bilin. The principal constitu¬ 
ent of ox-gall. An odorless, color¬ 
less, acrid substance, freely soluble 
in water. 

Bilious. Abounding in bile. 

BilipiiyEIN. A name for the 

brown coloring matter of bile. 

Bilipiiasin. A black substance, 


insoluble in water, found in gall¬ 
stones. 

Bilirubin. A red coloring mat¬ 
ter found in human bile. 

Bilis. (L.) The.bile. 

Biliverdin. A green powder, 
obtained from green bile. 

Bilobed. Having two lobes. 

Binary Compound. In chemis¬ 
try, applied to compounds of two 
simple elements. Thus cinnabar, 
composed of sulphur and mercury, 
is a binary compound. Where a 
compound performs the function of 
a simple element, it may form one 
of the constituents of a binary com¬ 
pound. 

Binatus. (L.) In pairs. 

Binder. A bandage. 

Biniodide of Mercury. (Red 
Iodide of Mercury.) A compound 
produced by precipitation from 
aqueous solutions of corrosive su¬ 
blimate and iodide of potassium. It 
is an irritant poison, used medicin¬ 
ally in syphilis and epilepsy. 

Binitrosulpiiuret of Iron. A 
substance obtained from nitrate of 
potassa and hydrosulphite of am¬ 
monia mixed with protosulphate of 
iron. It is used in testing the puri¬ 
ty of chloroform. 

Binocular. Vision with two 
eyes. 

Binoculus. A bandage applied 
to both eyes. 

Biochymia. Vital chemistry. 

Binoxalate of Potassa. (Salt 
of Sorrel.) A salt obtained by neu¬ 
tralizing with potassa oxalic acid in 
solution, and adding another part of 
the acid, after which it is evaporated 
to the crystallization point. 

Bio i). Life. 

Biology. The science of life. 

Biolyciinium. Animal heat. 

Bionomy. Physiology. 

Bios. (G.) Life. 

Biped. Two-footed. 

Bi pi nna . Two-feathered. 

Bl RACEMATE OF POTASSA. (Par- 

atartrate of Potassa.) A salt discov- 


(See 



LEXICON. 


ered in wine, said to be an evidence 
of its superiority. It is in octagonal 
crystals. 

Birdlime. A viscid substance ex¬ 
isting in various plants, particularly 
in the bark of Viscum album and 
Ilex aquifolium , or European holly, 
used in catching birds by smearing 
it on twigs. 

Btsche. A malignant dysentery 
of Trinidad. 

Biserial. Arranged in two rows. 

Bismuth. A metal of a yellowish 
or reddish-white color. It is some¬ 
what harder than lead, and scarcely, 
if at all, malleable, being so brittle 
as to break easily under the ham¬ 
mer, and reducible to powder. It 
melts at 247° C., and may be fused 
in the flame of a candle. It is crys¬ 
tallized in pyramidal forms. 

Bismuth Carbonate. A salt 
formed by the union of carbonic 
acid with bismuth. It is used in 
disorders of the stomach. 

Bismuth Magistery. An old 
name for the subnitrate of bismuth. 

Bismuth Ociire. A native oxide 
of bismuth, sometimes containing a 
small portion of carbonic acid. 

Bismuth Purified. Bismuth usu¬ 
ally contains arsenic and other con¬ 
taminating metals, which are re- 
moved bv oxidation. 

Bismuth Subcarbonate. (See 
Bismuth Carbonate.) It is called 
sw&carbonate because it contains a 
less number of equivalents of car¬ 
bonic acid than of bismuth. 

Bismuth Subnitrate. (White 
Bismuth.) A salt formed by dis¬ 
solving purified bismuth in nitric acid 
somewhat diluted, concentrating the 
solution, and precipitating by adding 
it to a large quantity of water. It 
is considered an antispasmodic and 
absorbent, a sedative and astringent. 

Bismuth Peroxide. A yellow 
oxide of bismuth, formed by burning 
the metal in the open air, which 
consists of one equivalent of bismuth 
and three of oxygen. 


Bismuth Valerianate. (Bis- 
muthi Valerianas.) A salt formed 
by the double decomposition between 
solutions of ternitrate of bismuth 
and valerianate of soda. It is used 
in neuralgia and painful affections 
of the stomach. 

Bismutiiic Acid. A compound 
of bismuth and oxygen, possessing 
acid properties, and consisting of 
one equivalent of the former to five 
of the latter. 

Bismuthum. (See Bismuth.) 

Bismuthum Album. (See Bis¬ 
muth Subnitrate.) 

Bistoury. A small knife used by 
surgeons. 

Bisulphate. A sulphate con¬ 
sisting of two equivalents of sul¬ 
phuric acid to one of base ; a super¬ 
sulphate. 

Bisulphate of Alcohol. (Bi¬ 
sulphate of Ether.) A double sul¬ 
phate of ether and water. 

Bisulpliate of Potassa. (Pot- 
assce Bisulphas.) A salt prepared 
by placing together in a small porce¬ 
lain capsule, to which heat is applied 
until acid vapors cease to rise, three 
ounces of sulphate of potassa and 
one of pure sulphuric acid. 

Bisulphate of Quinia. (Super¬ 
sulphate of Quinia.) A salt of 
quinia consisting of two equivalents 
of sulphuric acid to one of quinia. 

Bisulphide of Carbon. (Car¬ 
buret of Sulphur.) A compound 
formed by passing the vapor of sul¬ 
phur over charcoal heated to redness 
in a porcelain tube. It is used in¬ 
ternally and externally in rheuma¬ 
tism, paralysis, cutaneous affections, 
and as a solvent in the arts and man¬ 
ufactures. 

Bisulphate of Lime. A salt 
prepared bypassing sulphurous acid 
in excess through a solution of the 
sulphite of lime. 

Bisulpiiuret. A sulphuret with 
two atoms of sulphur as the electro¬ 
negative ingredient; a deuto-sul- 
phuret. 









LEXICON. 


Bisulphuret of Arsenic. (See 
Realgar.) 

Bisulphuret of Iodine. (Iodide 
of Sulphur, Sulphuric Iodidum.) A 
preparation resulting from the per¬ 
fect combination of iodine and sul¬ 
phur in the proportion of four parts 
of the former to one of the latter. It 
is a useful remedy in skin diseases. 

Bisulphuret "of Mercury. (Red 
Sulphuret of Mercury, Cinnabar.) 
A preparation formed by the union 
of mercury and sulphur by heat, 
and sublimated. To render the 
combination more prompt, the sul¬ 
phur should first be melted. 

Bitartrate of Potassa. Cream 
of tartar. (See Acid Tartrate.) 

Bitter Almond. (See Almond.) 

Bitter Salt. (See Epsom Salt.) 

Bittern. The brine remaining 
in salt works after the salt is con¬ 
creted. 

Bittos. A disease of the anus. 

Bitumens. Liquids or solids 
which emit when heated, a peculiar 
odor, burn easily, emitting a thick 
and very odorous smoke. All bi¬ 
tumens are bitter and stimulating. 

Biventer. (L.) Two-bellied. 

Bixa. A genus of plants. 

Bixic Acid. An acid obtained 
from the Bixa Orellana. 

Bixin. The coloring principle 
of the Bixa Orellana. It forms 
crystals which become very yellow 
upon exposure to the air. 

Blabe. A wound. 

Black Antimony. (See Anti- 
monii Sulphuretum .) 

Black Ash. (Soda Ball.) A 
black mass formed by fusing to¬ 
gether dried sulphate of soda, with 
its own weight of limestone, and 
half its weight of small coal. 

Black Cyanide of Potassium. 
An impure cyanide found in the re¬ 
tort after the preparation of the 
pure article. 

Black Flux. A name given to 
cream of tartar burned with half its 
weight of nitrate of potassa. 


Black Lead. (Plumbago, Car¬ 
buret of Iron.) A mineral com¬ 
posed of carbon with a small portion 
of iron. It has been used remedi- 
ally in skin diseases. 

Black Mercurial Lotion. (See 
Lotio Hydrargyri Nigra.) 

Black Oxide of Copper. The 
monoxide of copper obtained by 
heating to redness the nitrate of cop¬ 
per. Used externally in induration 
of the glands. 

Black Oxide of Manganese. 
(Peroxide of Manganese, Pyrolusite, 
Braunstein.) Native impure diox¬ 
ide of manganese in powder, con¬ 
taining sixty-six per cent of the pure 
dioxide. It is considered tonic and 
alterative, and is used in the arts for 
obtaining chlorine in the manufac¬ 
ture of chloride of lime. 

Black Oxide of Mercury. A 
preparation consisting of one equiv¬ 
alent of mercury and one of oxy¬ 
gen, and may be prepared by decom¬ 
posing a solution of nitrate of prot¬ 
oxide of mercury by solution of .po¬ 
tassa. 

Black Pigment. A fine, light, 
carbonaceous substance, or lamp¬ 
black. It is obtained from coal-tar. 

Black Salts. A black matter 
of the consistence of brown sugar, 
resulting from the evaporation of 
lye in the manufacture of potash. 

Black Sulphuret of Mercury. 
An old preparation made by tritura¬ 
ting together equal parts of sulphur 
and mercury until the globules dis¬ 
appear. 

Bladder. The receptacle of 
urine in man and the lower ani¬ 
mals. 

Bl^esus. A distortion. 

Blain! Vesicular eruption. 

Blanch. To make white by 

«/ 

stripping off the peel; whitening, 
bleaching. 

Blancfiimeter. An instrument 
for measuring the bleaching power 
of chloride of lime and potash. 

Bland. Mild, soft, gentle. 







374 


LEXICON. 


Blastema. A germ. 

Bleaching Powder. Chloride 
of lime. 

Bleb. A small bladder. 

Blechnum. A genus of ferns. 

Blenna. Mucus. 

Blenna Narium. Mucus of the 
nose. 

Blennoptysis. Catarrh. 

Blennorrihea. A flow of mu¬ 
cus; gleet. 

Blennorhagia. Gleet. 

Blennoses. Affections of mu¬ 
cous tissues. 

Blepharon. The eyelid. 

Blepharoncus. A tumor, on the 
eyelid. 

Blepharoplastice. Formation 
of a new eyelid. 

Blessed Thistle. {Centaur ea 
benedicta.) An herbaceous plant, 
considered tonic, diaphoretic and 
emetic. 

Blessure. (F.) Wound. 

Blestrismus. Restlessness of the 
sick. 

Bleta Alba. Milky urine. 

Blitum Americanum, Poke- 
weed . 

Blood Fibrine. A white, tena¬ 
cious material, obtained from coagu¬ 
lation of the blood. 

Block Tin. Impure tin obtained 
by melting native tin, roasting it and 
reducing in the presence of carbon. 

Blowpipe. An instrument by 
which a current of air is driven 
through a flame which is directed 
upon some substance which is to be 
raised to a very high temperature. 
In the oxyhyclrogen blowpipe oxygen 
and hydrogen gases are brought to¬ 
gether at the point of combustion, 
producing so high a temperature that 
the most difficultly fusible metals, 
such as platinum, are easily melted, 
while iron wire held in the flame 
burns brilliantly. 

Blue Stone, ) (See Cupri Sul- 

Blue Vitriol, j phas.) 

Boa. An eruption of red, watery 
pimples. 


Boae. Syphilis. 

Bochetum . A decoction of woods. 

Bochia. A glass subliming ves¬ 
sel. 

Bocium . Bronchocele. 

Boiieatannic Acid. An acid 
discovered in tea; formula, C 14 H 6 

OsT"Aq. 

Boheic Acid. An acid obtained 
from Chinese tea. 

Boil. A circumscribed inflam¬ 
mation in the cellular tissue. 

Boiling Point. The degree of 
temperature at which a fluid is con¬ 
verted into vapor. The boiling point 
of water is 212° according to the 
common scale, but 100° by the Cen¬ 
tigrade thermometer which is al¬ 
most universally employed in sci¬ 
ence. 

Bo la. Myrrh. 

Bole. A fine smooth clay, often' 
highly-colored by iron. 

Bole, Armenian. A bright red 
species, harder than other kinds, and 
with a rough surface. 

Bole, French. Of a pale red color, 
variegated with specks of white and 
yellow. 

Boletic Acid. A crystallizable. 
acid discovered in the juice of mush-' 
rooms. ( Boletus .) 

Bolus. A soft mass of medicine 
made into a large pill to be swal¬ 
lowed at once. 

Bomb ate. A salt of bombic acid. 

Bombic Acid. An acid of the 
liquid contained in the chrysalis of 
the silk-worm. 

Bombus. Ringing in the ears. 

Ronann.ia Officinalis. White 
mustard. 

Bone. The hardest part of the 
body, forming the skeleton. Com¬ 
posed of gelatine, phosphate of lime, 
carbonate of lime, phosphate of mag¬ 
nesia and other components. 

Bone Ash. The residue of bones 
which have been burned to a white 
ash. 

Bone Black. (Animal Charcoal.) 
A black substance obtained by calci- 




LEXICON. 


375 


ning bones in close vessels; it is 
used as a black pigment, and in the 
refining of sugar . 

Bone Earth. A white substance 
obtained from calcining bones in 
open vessels, and chiefly composed 
of phosphate of lime. 

Bone Oil. (See Oil of Dippel.)* 

Bone Phosphate of Lime. A 
white powder, insoluble in water, but 
soluble in nitric, muriatic, and acetic 
acids, consisting of one equivalent 
of phosphoric acid and three of 
lime, prepared by burning bones to 
whiteness. 

Bone Spirit. An ammoniacal li¬ 
quor obtained by the destructive dis¬ 
tillation of bones. 

Boracic. Pertaining to or pro¬ 
duced from borax. 

Boracic Acid. A compound con¬ 
sisting of boron with oxygen. It is i 
obtained from borax by adding sul¬ 
phuric acid. It has the property of 
rendering cream of tartar soluble in 
water. 

Boracic Acid Soluble Cream 
of Tartar. A preparation formed j 
by dissolving in a silver basin at the ! 
boiling temperature, 400 parts of 
cream of tartar and 100 parts of 
boracic acid in 2,400 parts of water. 
The solution is kept boiling until 
the greater part of the water is con¬ 
sumed. 

Borate. A salt formed by the 
combination of boracic acid with a 
base. • 

Borate of Ammonia. (Biborate 
of Ammonia.) A salt formed by 
dissolving boracic acid in excess in 
heated water of ammonia, and allow- 
in g the solution to cool slowly, when 
semi-transparent crystals will form. 

Borax. Biborate of soda; a salt 
formed by a combination of boracic | 
acid with soda. It is brought from 
the East Indies, where it is said to 
be found at the bottom or on the 
margin of certain lakes. It is said 
to be artificially prepared m Persia, | 
like niter. It has the property of | 


rendering cream of tartar soluble in 
water. 

Borax, Artificial. Borax made 
by the direct combination of boracic 
acid with soda. 

Borax Glass. The name given 
to borax when exposed above a red 
heat, being then converted upon cool¬ 
ing into a transparent solid. 

Borax Octahedral. Borax crys¬ 
tallized into octahedrons, and con¬ 
taining only five equivalents of 
water. 

Borax, Prismatic. Borax crys¬ 
tallized into prisms, and containing 
ten equivalents of water. 

Bokborygmus. A sound in the 
bowels, caused by gas. 

Bordeaux Turpentine. Com¬ 
mon European turpentine obtained 
in the south of France. 

Boric Acid. An acid of boron 
and oxygen. It is in the form of a 
glassy mass decomposed only by a 
red heat. 

Borneo Camphor. (Sumatra 
Camphor, Camphol.) A variety of 
camphor found in Borneo and Suma¬ 
tra; the product of Dryobalanops 
camphor a. 

Boron. The radical or element¬ 
ary base of boracic acid. 

Boronatrocalcite. A native 
borate of calcium and sodium, met 
with in South America, and some¬ 
times used as a source of boron com¬ 
pounds. * 

Boruret. A combination of 
boron with a simple body. 

Botanyl The science which treats 
of the form and structure of plants. 

Botiiriocephalus. The broad 
tape-worm, sometimes of great 
length. 

Botium. (See Ifroncltocelc.) 

Bougie. An instrument intro¬ 
duced into the urethra to expand it, 
or to convey a caustic to some part of 
its surface. 

Braciii.eus. Belonging to the 
arm. 

Braciiiuai. (L.) The arm. 








LEXICON. 


376 


Brachial. Belonging to the arm. 

Brachiatus. Spreading in four 
directions. 

Brain. The mass contained with¬ 
in the cranium, including cerebrum, 
cerebellum and medulla oblongata. 

Brandy. ( Eau de Vie.) The 
spirit obtained from fermented 
grapes by distillation, containing 
from 48 to 56 per cent of absolute 
alcohol. 

Brass. An alloy of copper and 
zinc. 

Brazilic Acid. ( Brazil-in ). An 
acid contained in Brazjl-wood, com¬ 
posed ofC 36 H u 0 14 . 

Bregma. (G.) The top of the 
bead. 

Brevia Vasa. (L. Short ves¬ 
sels). Branches of the splenic artery 
and vein. 

Brevis. (L.) Short. 

Bright’s Disease. An affection 
of the kidneys in which the urine 
contains albumen — first described 
by Dr. Bright of London; albu¬ 
minuria. 

Brim of the Pelvis. The bony 
ring between the abdominal and pel¬ 
vic cavities. 

Brimstone. Sulphur; a hard, 
brittle, inflammable substance, of a 
yellow-lemon color, which has no 
smell unless heated, and which be¬ 
comes negatively electric by heat and 
friction. It is found in great quan¬ 
tities, and sometimes pure, in the 
neighborhood of volcanoes. 

Brine. Water saturated with 
salt. 

Britannia. A metallic com¬ 
pound or alloy, consisting chiefly of 
block tin, with some antimony and 
a small proportion of copper and 
brass. 

British Barilla. (See Black 
Ash.) 

British Gum. A substance of a 
brownish color, very soluble in water, 
formed by heating dry starch at a 
high temperature. Its properties 
are similar to dextrine. 


Brittle Gum. (Salabreda.) An 
inferior quality of gum arabic, ob¬ 
tained from the Acacia albida. 

Bromal. An oily colorless fluid, 
obtained by the action of bromine on 
alcohol. 

Bromal Hydrate. A salt 
which resembles chloral hydrate in 
its anaesthetic action upon the ani¬ 
mal organism. 

Bromate. A compound of bro¬ 
mic acid with a base. 

Bromic Acid. An acid composed 
of bromine and oxygen. 

Bromide. A compound of bro¬ 
mine with a metallic or basic radi¬ 
cal. 

Bromide of Ammonium. (Sec 
Ammonia Hydrobromate). 

Bromide of Carbon. An impu¬ 
rity which frequently exists in* com¬ 
mercial bromine. 

Bromide of Iron. ( Ferri Bro- 
midum.) A bro nide obtained by 
heating gently in thirty parts of 
water two parts of bromine and one 
of iron filings, filtering and evapo¬ 
rating to dryness in an iron vessel. 
It is useful in scrofulous affec¬ 
tions. 

Bromide of Potassium. (Po- 
tassii Bromidum.) A salt formed 
by adding to a solution of bromide 
of iron a solution of carbonate of po- 
tassa; carbonate of iron is formed 
while the bromide of potassium re¬ 
mains in solution, which is strained 
and evaporated. 

Bromine. ( Brominium. Bro- 
mum.) An elementary substance 
found in sea-water and marine pro¬ 
ductions. It is a deep-red fluid, of 
an offensive, suffocating smell. 

Brominii Chloridum. (Chloride 
of Bromine). A chloride prepared 
bv passing chlorine gas through bro¬ 
mine and condensing the vapors 
which form by a freezing mixture. 

Brominium. ) /c -r, x 

Bromum. } < See Bromme ') 

Bromoform. A compound closely 
resembling chloroform in its effects. 





LEXICON. 


3 


1*7 1*f 

i i 


Bromo-Phosphorous Acid. An 
acid obtained by heating one mole¬ 
cule of phosphorous acid and two 
molecules of bromine in a sealed 
tube, at the temperature of a water- 
bath, until pressure is no longer ob¬ 
servable. 

Bromopicrin. A compound, 
C Br 3 N0 2 , formed by slacking four 
parts of quicklime with fifty parts 
of water, transferring the mixture 
into a glass alembic, adding gradu¬ 
ally six parts of bromine, then one 
part of picric acid, and distilling 
rapidly. 

Bronchia. ) (Plural Bronchice.) 

Bronchi, j Subdivisions of the 
wind-pipe communicating with the 
lungs. 

Bronchial. Relating to the 
bronchias. 

Bronchitis. Inflammation of 
the bronchiae. 

Bronchocele. Enlargement of 
the thyroid gland. 

Bronze. A compound of copper 
and tin, to which other metallic sub¬ 
stances are sometimes added, es¬ 
pecially zinc. 

Brown Sugar. (Unpurified Su¬ 
gar.) Sugar consisting of cane 
sugar associated with variable quan¬ 
tities of hygroscopic moisture, un- 
crystallizable sugar, gum, albumen, 
etc. 

Bruit. (F.) A sound heard on 
percussion or auscultation. 

Bruit Placentaire. (F.) Mur¬ 
muring of the uterus and placenta 
heard in auscultation. 

Brulure. (F.) A burn. 

Brunnep/s Glands. . Solitary 
glands of the intestines. 

Brunonian. Following the the¬ 
ories of Dr. Brown. 

Brunswick Green. A com¬ 
pound of one part chloride of cop¬ 
per and three parts oxide of copper, 
the latter performing the office of 
an acid. It was used for paper- 
hangings and in oil paintings. 

Brunus. Erysipelas. 


Brygmus. Grating the teeth. 

Bryonin. A reddish, amorphous 
glycoside obtained from the root of 
the white bryony. 

Bube. A pustule. 

Bubo. An inflamed gland situa¬ 
ted in the groin. 

Bubonocele. Rupture in the 
groin. 

Bucca. (L.) The cheek. 

Buccal. Pertaining 10 the cheek. 

Buccea. A mouthful. 

Buccinator. The muscle of the 
cheek. 

Bucco-Pharyngeal. Belonging 
to the mouth and pharynx. 

Bucnemia. Swelling of the leg. 

Bugantia. Chilblain. 

Bulliat. (L.) Let it boil. 

Bulimia. An unnatural appetite. 

Bullae. Large vesicles. 

Bulla. A blister. 

Bumping of Fluids. A term 
applied to the agitation of fluids in 
boiling. It is prevented by placing 
through the cork of the retort a 
strong glass tube .with its end bent 
to a right angle and drawn out to a 
fine point. 

Bunyon. An inflammation upon 
the great toe. 

Burette. An instrument for di¬ 
viding fluids into very small frac¬ 
tional parts. 

Burgundy Pitch. (See Abies 
Excelsa .) 

Burnt Hartshorn. The pro¬ 
duct resulting from exposing harts¬ 
horn to a heat sufficient to consume 
its animal matter. 

Burmese Naphtha. (Rangoon 
Tar.) A peculiar greenish-brown 
petroleum, of the consistence of 
goose fat. 

Burnett’s Disinfecting Fluid. 
An aqueous solution of chloride of 
zinc, containing two hundred grains 
to the imperial ounce. 

Bursa. A bag ; a skin to spread 
plasters on. 

Bursae Mucosae. Mucous sacs 
around the joints. 




3?8 


LEXICON. 


Butter . The old name given to 
some of the chlorides from their soft 
consistency when freshly prepared. 

Butter of Antimony. (Ter- 
chloride of Antimony.) A chloride 
consisting of three equivalents of 
chlorine to one of antimony. 

Butter of Cacao. The fixed 
oil in the kernels of the Theobroma 
cacao, used as an ingredient in 
ointments, for coating pills and for 
preparing suppositories. 

Butter of Zinc. (See Chloride 
of Zinc.) 

Butyl Hydride. A constituent 
of American petroleum, containing 
ten equivalents of hydrogen and 
eight of carbon. 

Butyrate of Etiiylic Ether. 
(Butyric Ether.) A substance ob¬ 
tained by mixing butyric acid, alco¬ 
hol and sulphuric acid. It is used 
for flavoring extracts. 

Butyric Acid. An acid pro¬ 
duced from the fermentation of 
milk. (See page 2G1.) 

Buxina. The same as Berberina . 

Byssus. A fungous growth of 
small cryptogamous plants occurring 
upon decomposing organic substan¬ 
ces. 

Bythos. The bottom of the 
stomach. 

G. 

C. Chemical symbol for carbon. 

Ca. Chemical symbol for calcium. 

Cachsmia. Bad blood. 

Cachetic. Pertaining to cachexy. 

Cachexy. A state in which the 
constitution is manifestly vitiated. 

Cachinnation. Loud laughter. 

Cacodes. Having a bad odor. 

Cacgethes. Of bad nature. 

Cacoplastic. Capable of merely 
a low degree of organization. 

Cacosphygyia. A bad state of the 
pulse. 

Oacothymia. Derangement of 
the moral faculties. 


Cactace^e. A genus of dicotyle¬ 
donous monopetalous plants. 

Cadaver. A corpse. 

Cadaverous. Pertaining to a 
corpse. 

Cade Oil. A kind of tar ob¬ 
tained by distillation from the in¬ 
terior reddish wood of Juniper us 
oxycedrus growing in France, where 
it is prepared. It is a thick, oily 
black liquid, smells like tar, and is 
used in skin diseases of horses and 
sheep. 

Cadmia. An oxide of zinc which 
collects on the sides of furnaces 
where zinc is sublimed, as in brass 
foundries. 

Cadmii Iodidum. (Iodide of 
Cadmium.) A salt prepared by 
mixing iodine and filings of cad¬ 
mium in a moist state. It is used, 
externally in skin diseases. 

Cadmii Sulphas. (Sulphate of 
Cadmium.) A salt prepared by 
decomposing the nitrate of cadmium 
by carbonate of soda, forming a car¬ 
bonate; this treated with dilute sul¬ 
phuric acid, which expels the car¬ 
bonic acid and forms the sulphate. 
It resembles sulphate of zinc as an 
astringent and emetic. 

Cadmium. A metal discovered 
by Stromeyer, in 1818, in carbonate 
of zinc. Its color is white, resem¬ 
bling tin. It is ductile and mal¬ 
leable, and when fused crystallizes 
in octahedrons. It melts below a 
red heat, and suffers but slight 
change in the air. 

Caduca. The deciduous mem¬ 
brane of the uterus. 

Caducous. Falling off quickly. 

Cjecum. The blind gut; name 
given to the first part of the great 
intestine. 

CiECAL. Pertaining to the caecum. 

C.ecus. (L.) Blind. 

C/ERULEAN. Blue. 

Caesarean Section. An incis¬ 
ion through the walls of the abdo¬ 
men and uterus, for the purpose of 
extracting the fetus. 







LEXICON. 


379 


Caesium. An alkaline metal, dis¬ 
covered by means of spectrum anal¬ 
ysis. In its chemical qualities the 
compounds of caesium are allied to 
those of potassium. It colors certain 
lines of the spectrum a beautiful blue. 

Caffeine. A white, bitter 
crystallizable substance, obtained 
from coffee, tea and guarana. 

Caffeo-tannic Acid. A pecu¬ 
liar principle resembling tannin, 
found in coffee. 

Cahinic Acid. A crystallizable 
bitter substance believed to be the 
active principle of Cahinca or Brazil¬ 
ian black-root. 

Cajeput Oil. The volatile oil 
obtained by distilling the leaves of 
the Melaleuca cajuputi, a small tree 
found in the Moluccas. 

Cajeputene. The hvdrocarbon 
forming cajeput oil. 

Cake Cochineal. An inferior 
variety of cochineal in flat cakes, 
composed of the cochineal insect 
mixed with portions of the thorns 
and skin of the cactus. 

Calamina. (Calamine.) The 
native carbonated hydrated oxide of 
zinc, formerly regarded as a metal. 

Calamina Prepakata. Cala¬ 
mine reduced to an impalpable 
powder by heat. 

Calamine. (See Calamina.) 

Calamine, Prepared. (See Cal- 
am ina Preparaia .) 

Calamus. (Sweet Flag.) The 
root-stock of Acorus calamus, a wild 
plant found in America. It is a 
stimulant tonic. 

Calcaneum. A short bone situ¬ 
ated in the lower and back part of 
the foot. 

Calcareo-Argillaceous. Con¬ 
sisting of or containing calcareous 
and argillaceous earth. 

Calcareo-Bituminous. Consist¬ 
ing of or containing lime and bitu- 
men. 

Calcareo-Silicious. Consisting 
of or containing calcareous and sil- 
icious earth. 


Calcareo-Sulphurous. Consist¬ 
ing of or containing lime and sul¬ 
phur. 

Calcareous. Partaking of the 
nature of lime; containing lime. 

Calcii Chloridum. (Chloride 
of Calcium.) A chloride formed by 
saturating hydrochloric acid with 
chalk or marble, evaporating to*dry¬ 
ness, and heating to redness. It is 
used medicinally in solution only. 

Calcii Sulphuretum. (Sul- 
pliuret of Lime, Hydrosulphate of 
Lime.) A compound formed by 
passing sulphuretted hydrogen, so 
long as'it is absorbed, through water 
holding lime in suspension. 

Calcination. A term applied to 
the changes produced in mineral 
substances by intense heat, not at¬ 
tended with fusion, and leaving a 
solid residue; the term is often used 
synonymously with oxidation. 

Calcined. Reduced to powder 
by high temperature. 

Calcined Magnesia. Carbo¬ 
nate of magnesia exposed to an in¬ 
tense heat in an earthen vessel for 
two hours, or until the carbonic acid 
is expelled. It is an antacid and 
laxative. 

Calcined Mercury. A name 
applied by the older chemists to red 
oxide of mercury. 

Calcis Carbonas Prascipitata. 
(Precipitated Carbonate of Lime.) 
A salt formed by a precipitation re¬ 
sulting from a mixture of solution 
of chloride of calcium and a solution 
of carbonate of soda in water at their 
boiling-point. 

Calcis Chlorate Liquor. (So¬ 
lution of Chlorinated Lime.) This 
is prepared by mixing one pound of 
chlorinated lime with one gallon of 
distilled water by trituration in a 
iarge mortar, then passing it through 
a calico filter. 

Calcis Chloridum. (Chloride 
of Lime, Hypochlorite of Lime, 
Bleaching Powder.) A compound 
resulting from the action of chlorine 








380 


LEXICON. 


on hydrate of lime as long as the 
former is absorbed. It is a power¬ 
ful bleaching agent, also a desiccant 
and disinfectant. 

Calcis Hydras. (Hydrate of 
Lime, Slacked Lime.) Hydrate of 
lime is used exclusively as a phar¬ 
maceutical agent. 

Oalcis IIypochloris. (See Cal¬ 
cis Chloridum. 

Oalcis Hyposulphis. (Hyposul¬ 
phite of Lime.) A salt obtained by 
boiling the sulphite with sulphur. 

Oalcis Phosplias Pr^cipitata. 
(Phosphate of Lime.) A salt per- 
pared by dissolving the phosphate of 
lime in bones, with hydrochloric 
acid properly diluted, and precipi¬ 
tating it with ammonia. It is used 
in scrofulous affections. 

Oalcis Sulphas. (Sulphate of 
Lime, Gypsum, Plaster of Paris.) 
As gypsum, sulphate of lime is found 
in nature, combined with two atoms 
of water. When moderately heated, 
gypsum loses its water and becomes 
plaster of Paris. This, when moist¬ 
ened, takes up water again and sets 
to a solid mass, and is therefore 
much used for making casts and 
molds, and in dressing fractured 
limbs. 

Calcium. A metal found in lime, 
and all calcareous substances, of a 
pale yellow color, malleable and 
ductile, melts at a red heat, and 
burns easily, forming lime. It de¬ 
composes water. 

Calcium Chloride. (See Calcii 
Chloridum.) 

Calcium Fluoride. This com¬ 
pound, in solution, may be used for 
engraving on glass instead of hydro- 
lluosilicic acid. 

Calcium Iodide. (Iodide of 
Lime.) A preparation formed by 
treating a solution of iodide of iron 
with milk of lime, then filtering and 
evaporating. It is said to be useful 
in phthisis. 

Calcium Oxide. (Pure Lime.) 
It is prepared by heating marble to 


redness in a vessel exjoosed to the 
air ; much used in mortar, cements, 
etc. 

Calcium Phosphate. A white 
granular body, crystalline, slightly 
soluble in water, but more soluble 
in water charged with carbonic acid. 

Caluium Phosphide. A compound 
formed by heating lime in a Hessian 
crucible, and adding from time to 
time small portions of phosphorus, 
stirring well and covering after each 
addition, until, on taking off the 
cover, a blue flame appears on the 
surface, and remains for fifteen min¬ 
utes, when occasionally stirred. 

Calcium Sulphide. A compound 
prepared by the decomposition of 
gypsum by fusion with charcoal. 

Calcspar. Crystallized carbon¬ 
ate of lime. 

Calculus. (Stone, Gravel, Gall- 
Stone.) Any concretion accidentally 
formed in the bodies of animals, as 
in the bladder, kidneys, etc. 

Calculi. Plural of Calculus. 
Arthritic Calculi are those formed in 
the capsules of the joints ; Nephritic , 
those formed in the kidneys, and 
Urinary those formed in the blad¬ 
der. 

Caldarium. (L.) A hot bath. 

Calefacient. Causing heat. 

Calendulin. A principle of 
Calendula officinalis. 

Caliber. Diameter of any round 
body, as a bullet, or of a tube. 

Caligo. (L.) Blindness. 

Calipers. Compasses with curv¬ 
ed legs. 

Callosity. A hardening of the 
soft parts of the body. 

Callous. Hard; bone-like. 

Callus. Bony matter formed 
during the union of fractured bones. 

Calomel. (Subchloride of Mer¬ 
cury.) A well-known white com¬ 
pound, containing two equivalents 
of mercury and two of chlorine. 
Employed internally as purgative 
and vermifuge; externally applied 
upon venereal sores. 







LEXICON - . 


381 


Calomel Iodides. Compounds 
employed in syphilis, scrofulous and 
other affections. 

Calomelas. (See Calomel.) 

Caloric. Heat; an agency to 
which the phenomena of heat were 
ascribed. 

Calorification. Production of 
heat. 

Calorimeter. An instrument 
for measuring the amount of specific 
heat contained by any body. 

Calquoin’s Caustic Paste. A 
paste prepared by combining 10 parts 
of chloride of zinc, 20 parts of flour, 
and 4 parts glycerine. 

Calx. (L.) (Quicklime.) Lime 
freshly prepared and unhydrated. 

Calx Ciilorata. ) (See Calais 

C A LX C H LO R I NAT A . j Oh loHdlim .) 

Calx Nativa. (Native Calx.) A 
marly earth of whitish color, which 
causes water to bubble and can be 
used like lime without calcination. 

Calx Viva. Quicklime; unslaked 
lime. 

Cameleon Mineral. A com¬ 
pound formed by fusing together 
pure potash and black oxide of man¬ 
ganese, whose solution in water, at 
first green, passes spontaneously 
through the whole series of spectral 
colors to the red, and by the addition 
of potash returns to its original 
green. # 

Camera. A photographer’s box. 

Campana. A bell. 

Campelina. A bandage. 

Camphene. A burning-fluid com¬ 
posed of alcohol, turpentine and 
camphor. This term is applied also 
to the pure oil of turpentine, and to 
a radical contained in the oil of cam¬ 
phor. 

Camphogen. A hydrocarbon com¬ 
posed of eight equivalents of hydro¬ 
gen and ten of carbon; the basyl of 
camphor. 

Camphol. (See Borneo Cam¬ 
phor.) 

Camphor. A peculiar white, com¬ 
bustible, concrete substance, purified 


by sublimation, derived from Laurus 
camjjhora, an Asiatic evergreen tree. 
It is a moderate stimulant, anodyne, 
narcotic, etc. 

Camphor, Artificial. (See Art¬ 
ificial Camphor.) 

Camphor, Motions of, on Wa¬ 
ter. When some fragments of cam¬ 
phor are thrown on the surface of 
clean water, contained in a chem- 
ically-clean glass, they become en¬ 
dowed with lively motions of rota¬ 
tion and progression. If, while thus 
in motion, the water be touched 
with the finger, or with a speck of 
oil or greasy matter, the motions are 
immediately arrested. 

C amphora. (See Camphor.) 

Campiiorate. A salt formed by 
the combination of camphoric acid 
with a base. 

Canada Balsam. (See Abies bal- 
samea and Antiseptics.) 

Canada Pitch. (Fix Canaden¬ 
sis .) The prepared concrete juice 
of the hemlock-spruce {Abies Cana¬ 
densis) growing in Canada. It re¬ 
sembles Burgundy pitch. 

Canada Turpentine. (See Abies 
balsamea .) 

Canal. Any long narrow tube of 
the body. 

Canaliculated. Channeled. 
Provided with grooves. 

Canaliculus. A little canal. 

Cancellated. Composed of can- 
celli. 

Cancelli. Cellular bony struc¬ 
tures. 

Cancer. A malignant tumor 
which disorganizes the tissues in 
which it is developed. 

Cancerina. Gangrene, 

Cancrum. Cancer; ulcer. 

Candidum Oyi. (L.) The white 
of an egg. 

Candied. Preserved or inerusted 
with sugar. 

Cane Brimstone. (Roll Sul¬ 
phur.) A commercial term for sul¬ 
phur poured into cylindrical molds. 

Cane Sugar. (Sucrose.) Sugar 





382 


LEXICON. 


obtained from the sugar-cane (Sac- 
cltarum officinarum), beetroot, mal¬ 
low, sugar-maple, etc. It crystallizes 
in monoclinic prisms and is very 
soluble in water. 

Canine. Pertaining to the dog. 

Canine Teeth. The eye-teeth. 

Canities. Grayness of the hair. 

Canker. Ulceration of the mouth. 

C ann a bene. A colorless, vola¬ 
tile oil, obtained from the oil of 
hemp. 

Cannabin. The brown, resinous 
principle contained in Indian hemp 
(Cannabis indi.ca). 

Cannula. (See Canula.) 

‘Cantharidin. A white, volatile 
substance, insoluble in water but 
soluble in oils, and forming the blis¬ 
tering principle of the “Spanish 


Fly.” 

Canthoplastice. The surgical 
formation of the angle of the eye. 

C a nth us. The angle of the 


eye. 

Canula, A tube of rubber, metal, 
etc., open at both ends, employed in 
many surgical operations. 

Caoutchouc. (Gum elastic, In¬ 
dia Rubber.) The concrete juice of 
different species of Siphonia, a large 
tree growing in Brazil and Guiana. 
It is used for various purposes; it 
has been given in cutaneous disease. 
Products analogous to caoutchouc 
are yielded by many other plants. 

Caoutchouc Vulcanized. (Vul¬ 
canized Caoutchouc.) Caoutchouc 
which has undergone the treat¬ 
ment of vulcanization; this consists 
in submitting it in thin sheets to the 

O 

action of a mixture composed of 
forty parts bisulplmret of carbon and 
one of chloride of sulphur. 

Caoutciioucin. A highly in¬ 
flammable and very light, volatile, 
oily liquid, obtained by distillation 
from caoutchouc. 

Capiiopicrite. A complex bodv 
obtained from rhubarb. At one time 
supposed to be its active purgative 
principle. 


Capillaries. Minute, hairlike 
tubes. 

Capillary. Resembling a hair; 
long and very slender. A fine vessel 
or canal, especially one of the mi¬ 
nute vessels connecting the arteries 
and veins. 

Capillary Attraction, { Terms 

Capillary Repulsion. j denot¬ 
ing the cause which determines the 
ascent or descent of a fluid in a cap¬ 
illary tube above or below the level 
of the surrounding fluid when the 
tube is dipped in that fluid. 

Capital. Pertaining to the head. 

Capric Acid. (Caprinic Acid.) 
An acid obtained from butter, which 
crystallizes in needles at 52°, and be¬ 
comes entirely liquid at 64°. It has 
the peculiar odor of the goat, and 
has the formula C 20 IIo 0 Oo 

Caprilidene. A compound of 
carbon and hydrogen obtained from 
bromated caprylene and alcoholic 
potassa. 

Caprine. A neutral substance, 
capable of forming a soap, existing 
in butter. 

Caproic Acid. An oily liquid 
obtained from butter, with a strong 
odor and a nauseous, sweetish taste. 

Caproyl Hydride. A hydrocar¬ 
bon obtained from purified American 
petroleum. 

C’apsicin. The pungent principle 
of cayenne pepper. 

Capsula. A case or envelope. 

Capsulteseic Acid. An acid 
found in the horse-chestnut. 

Capsular. Bag-like. 

Capsule. A membranous cover¬ 
ing; an evaporating dish. 

Caput. (L.) The head. 

Caput-Mortuum. (L.) A word 
used by ancient chemists to designate 
the residue left in certain opera¬ 
tions. 

Caramel. Anhydrous or burnt 
sugar; a black, porous, shining sub¬ 
stance, soluble in water, which it 
colors a dark brown. 

Caraway. ( Carum .) The fruit 




LEXICON. 


38 ;> 


of Carum carui. Its seeds have an 
agreeable odor and aromatic taste. 

Carbazotate of Ammonia. A 
salt formed by carbazotic or picric 
acid with ammonia. 

Carbazotic Acid. (Picric Acid, 
Nitropicric Acid.) An acid obtained 
by the action of nitric acid on indigo, 
silk, and other substances. It is 
largely used in dyeing. It may be 
prepared from coal-tar, creosote, or 
from Australian gum. 

Carbo. (See Carbon.) 

Carbo Animalis. (Animal Char¬ 
coal, Bone Black.) Charcoal pre¬ 
pared from bones by subjecting them 
to a red-heat in close vessels. It is 
used chiefly in pharmacy for decolor¬ 
izing vegetable principles. 

Carbo Animalis Purificatus. 
(Purified Animal Charcoal.) Ani¬ 
mal charcoal purified by the action 
of diluted muriatic acid. 

Carbo Ligni. (Charcoal, Vege¬ 
table Charcoal.) Charcoal prepared 
from wood by exposing it to a red 
heat without access of air. It is 
disinfectant and absorbent, and is 
chiefly used in stomach affections. 
The best for medicinal purposes is 
said to be obtained from poplar 
shoots. 

Carbohydrogens. Compounds 
formed by the union of carbon and 
hydrogen, such as olefiant gas, and 
light and concrete oils of wine. 

Carbolic Acid. (See Acid, Car¬ 
bolic.) 

Carbon. An inodorous combus¬ 
tible elementary substance existing 
pure and crystallized in the diamond, 
and sometimes in graphite, and 
forming the basis of animal and veg¬ 
etable charcoal, and of coke. 

Carbon Oxychloride. (See 
Phosgene.) 

Carbon Pentasitlphide. A com¬ 
bination formed by the action of so¬ 
dium on bisulphide of carbon. 

Carbon Tetrabromide. f A com¬ 
pound prepared by heating bisul-1 
phide of carbon in a sealed tube with j 


bromide of iodine, and by other pro¬ 
cesses. 

Carbon Tetrachloride. (See 
Bichloride of Carbon.) 

Carbolate of Quinia. A salt 
formed by the union of carbolic acid 
and quinia. It is used in advantage 
in puerperal cases and in typhus 
fever. 

Carbonate. A salt formed by 
the union of carbonic acid with a 
base, as the carbonate of lime, car¬ 
bonate of soda, etc. 

Carbonate of Ammonia. (See 
Ammonia Carbonate.) 

Carbonate of Baryta. (See 
Baryta.) 

Carbonate of Bismuth. (See 
Bismuth Carbonate.) 

Carbonate of Iron Precipi¬ 
tated. (Sesquioxide of Iron, Red 
Oxide of Iron.) A powder employed 
for all the purposes to which the 
preparations of iron are generally 
applicable. It is prepared by mixing 
a solution of eight troy ounces of sul ¬ 
phate of iron in four pints of water, 
with nine troy ounces of carbonate 
of soda in four pints of water, stir¬ 
ring and setting aside to form a pre¬ 
cipitate, which is washed and dried 
without heat. 

Carbonate of Lead. ( White 
Lead , Ceruse .) Carbonate of lead 
may be prepared by passing a stream 
of . carbonic acid through a solu¬ 
tion of subacetate (trisacetate) of 
lead. It is employed externally in 
medicine only, in skin complaints. 

Carbonate of Lime. ( Greta 
Chalk.) Native friable carbonate of 
lime, or chalk, if pure, is entirely so¬ 
luble in muriatic acid. It consists, 
like other varieties of chalk, of one 
equivalent of carbonic acid and one 
of lime. 

Carbonate of Lime, Precipi¬ 
tated. ( Colds Cardonas Prcecipi- 
taia , Greta Prmcipitata.) A salt 
prepared by heating separately, to 
the boiling-point, five pints and a 
half of a solution of chloride of cal- 




384 


LEXICON. 


cium and a solution of seventy-two 
ounces (troy) of carbonate of soda in 
six pints of distilled water, and mix¬ 
ing them. 

Carbonate of Lithia. A white 
powder, sparingly soluble in water, 
and having a feeble alkaline reaction. 
It dissolves with effervescence in di¬ 
lute sulphuric acid, and forms a 
freely soluble salt. 

Carbonate of Magnesia. ( Mag¬ 
nesia Alba.) A white substance in 
powder or pulverulent masses, de¬ 
pendent for its density upon the 
strength of the solutions from which 
it is precipitated. 

Carbonate of Magnesia Solu¬ 
tion. (Fluid Magnesia.) A prepa¬ 
ration of carbonate of magnesia in 
the liquid form, by means of car¬ 
bonic acid. 

Carbonate of Manganese. A 
salt obtained from double decompo¬ 
sition of sulphate of manganese and 
carbonate of soda. It is used me¬ 
dicinally in cases of lack of appetite 
and chlorosis. 

Carbonate of Nickel. A salt 
obtained from speiss, the impure 
arseniuret of nickel. 

Carbonate of Potassa. (Salt 
of Tartar.) A salt which may be 
obtained pure from potassium tar¬ 
trate. It absorbs water from the 
air, is very soluble, and has a strong 
alkaline reaction. 

Carbonate of Potassa Impure. 
(Potash, Pearlash.) Obtained by 
boiling out the ashes of plants with 
water, and evaporating the solution 
to dryness. 

Carbonate of Soda. j (Sal 

Carbonate of Sodium, j Soda.) 
A crystalline substance manufac¬ 
tured on an enormous scale by treat¬ 
ing common salt with sulphuric 
acid, forming sodium sulphate, 
which is heated with coal and chalk, 
yielding the soda ash of commerce. 

Carbonate of Soda, Dried. ( 

Carbonate of Sodium “ f 
Carbonate of soda exposed, to heat 


in an iron vessel until thoroughly 
dried, stirred constantly and rubbed 
into powder. 

Carbonate of Zinc. An insol¬ 
uble substance occurring native as 
calamine. Obtained from zinc sul¬ 
phate and carbonate of soda. Form¬ 
ula, ZnC0 3 . 

Carbonate of Zinc, Native. 
(See Calamina.) 

Carbonated. Combined or im¬ 
pregnated with carbonic acid. 

Carbonated Waters. Waters 
impregnated with carbonic acid, 
possessing a sparkling appearance, 
such as ‘‘soda water," so called. 

Carbonic Anhydride. A color¬ 
less incombustible gas possessing the 
formula C0 2 . (See page 319.) 

Carbonic Acid Water. Water 
impregnated with five times its 
bulk of carbonic acid. 

Carbonic. (Carbon Monoxide.) 
An inflammable, poisonous gas. (See 
page 219.) 

Carboniferous. Producing car¬ 
bon. 

Carbonize. To change into car¬ 
bon by combustion or the action of 
acids. 

Carboy. A large glass bottle 
covered with a box or basket-work 
to prevent breaking. Used generally 
for transporting strong acids. 

Carbuncle. A painful inflam¬ 
mation of the fibrous tissue. 

Carburet. A combination of 
carbon with some other substance, 
the compound being neither an acid 
nor base. 

Carburet of Iron. (See Black 
Lead.) 

Carburet of Sulphur. (See 
Bisulphide of Carbon.) 

Carburetted Hydrogen Gas. A 
name given to various gaseous hy¬ 
drides of carbon. 

Carcinoma. A painful scirrhous 
tumor. 

Cardamon. A native plant of Mal¬ 
abar, Ammoum carclamomum , bear¬ 
ing seeds of sharp aromatic flavor. 




LEXICON. 


385 


Cardia. The heart. 

Cardiac. A medicine which ex¬ 
cites action in the stomach and ani¬ 
mates the spirits. 

Cardialgia. Heart-burn. 

Carditis. Inflammation of the 
heart. 

Cardionchus. Dilation of the 
heart. 

Cardol. A yellowish liquid ob¬ 
tained from the cashew-nut. 

Care cm. “(See Caraway.) 

Carica. The fig. 

Caries. An ulcerated bone. 

CarmicAcid. An acid contained 
in cochineal. 

Carminatives. Medicines for 
expelling wind from the intestines. 

Carmine. The pure coloring 
matter or coloring principle of coch¬ 
ineal, precipitated by spontaneous 
evaporation from the alcoholic tinc¬ 
ture of cochineal in the form of 
crystals of a beautiful red color. 

Carminic Acid. A name applied 
to carmine in consequence of its 
possessing acid properties. 

Carnary. A receptacle for dead 
bodies. 

Carneous. Fleshy. 

Carnification. Flesh-making. 

Carnin. One of the proximate 
principles of the human body. 

Carnivorous. Flesh-eating. 

Caro. (L.) The flesh. 

Carotic. Belonging to deep 
sleep. 

Carotid. The great artery of 
the neck. (See plate V.) 

Carotin. A peculiar, crystal- 
lizable, ruby-red, neutral principle, 
obtained from carrot-root. 

Carpial. Belonging to the 
wrist. 

Carpus. (L.) The wrist. 

Carrageenin. A peculiar'pectin 
obtained from Irish moss. 

Cartilage. Solid, elastic and 
flexible tissues of the body. 

Carui Fructus, I (See Cara- 

Carum. j way.) 

Caruncle. A fleshy excrescence. 

25 


Caru n cul je Lach ryma les. 
Small fleshy bodies situated in the 
inner angle of the eye. 

Carus. A deep insensibility, re¬ 
sisting the action of the strongest 
stimulants. 

Carvacrol. A product obtained 
from oil of caraway when it is dis¬ 
tilled with hydrated phosphoric 
acid, and poured back into the retort 
until it ceases to have the smell of 
caraway. It is an oily liquid, having 
a disagreeable odor and a strong 
taste. 

Carvene. A liquid oily hydro¬ 
carbon separable by distillation from 
oil of caraway, with the formula 
C TT 

' Carvol. A liquid oil, separable 
by distillation from oil of caraway. 

Caryophyllic Acid. (Eugenic 
Acid.) Terms applied to heavy oil 
of cloves, from the property it 
possesses of forming soluble and 
crystallizable salts with the alkalies. 

Caryophyllin. A white neutral 
crystalline resinous substance ob- 
tained from cloves, soluble in ether 
and boiling alcohol. 

Caryophyllus. The clove tree. 

Cascarilla. A Spanish bark 
used as a febrifuge. 

Caseic Acid. An acid derived 
from cheese. 

Casein. The curd or the coagu- 
lable portion of milk. 

Caseous. Pertaining to cheese;, 
like cheese; having the properties of 
cheese. 

Cassia Buds. The buds of the 
Cinnamomum cassia, a plant grow¬ 
ing in China. 

o 

Cassiin. A bitter, soluble, crystal- 
lizable principle, obtained from the 
root of the Cassia fistula. 

Castanea. The chestnut. 

Castile Soap. (Spanish Soap.) 
A fine white or mottled soap, ob¬ 
tained from olive oil and soda. 

Cast Iron. Iron containing 
carbon, silicon, sulphur and other 
impurities. 







380 


LEXICON. 


Castor. An animal substance 
secreted by glands situated under the 
skin of the abdomen of the beaver. 

Castorine. An animal principle 
discovered in castor, prepared by 
boiling castor in six times its weight 
of alcohol and filtering the liquor. 

Catacausis. Spontaneous com¬ 
bustion of the body. 

Cataclysma. An injection by 
the anus. 

Catagma. A fracture. 

Catalepsy. A species of apoplexy. 

Catalysis. A phenomenon oc¬ 
curring when a substance puts into 
activity, by its mere presence and 
without chemical union, certain af¬ 
finities which without it would re¬ 
main inactive. 

Catalytic. Pertaining to cataly¬ 
sis. 

Catamenia. The menses. 

Catapasm. A powder for sprink¬ 
ling the body. 

Cataplasm. A soft, moist poul¬ 
tice applied to the body. 

Cataract. An opacity of the 
crystalline lens or of its capsule. 

Catarrh. A severe and chronic 
inflammation of the mucous mem¬ 
brane, with an increase of its habitual 
secretion. 

Catarrh Senilis. Chronic bron¬ 
chitis. 

Catechuic Acid. (Catechuin.) 
A peculiar principle, bearing some 
analogy to gallic acid, of a snow- 
white, silky appearance, crystal! iz- 
able in fine needles, fusible, soluble in 
boiling water, obtained from pale 
catechu. 

Catharsis. Purging. 

Cathartic. Strongly purgative. 

Cathartin. A peculiar crystalliz- 
able principle identical with rham- 
nin, obtained from the fruit of 
Rhamnus catliarticus. 

Catheretics. Weak caustics, 
such as calcined alum, etc. 

Catheter. A tubular instrument, 
usually made of silver, to be intro¬ 
duced into the bladder to draw off 


the urine when the natural discharge 
is suppressed; also a sound to search 
for stone, etc. 

Catlin. A double-edged knife. 

Catoptric. An examination of 
the eye by a lighted candle and its 
reflection. 

Catotica. Disease attacking the 
internal parts. 

Caudex. The stem of a plant 
near the root. 

Caul. The omentum covering 
the bowels. 

Caustic. A substance which 
placed in contact with an animal 
part destroys and alters its organism. 

Caustic Collodion. A collodion 
prepared by dissolving four parts of 
corrosive sublimate in thirty parts of 
collodion. 

Caustic Potassa. (Hydrate of 
Potassa.) A white .substance, solu¬ 
ble in half its weight of water, act¬ 
ing as a powerful cautery and de¬ 
stroying the skin. Prepared by 
boiling potassium carbonate with 
water, and adding slaked lime. 
Formula, KOH. 

Caustic Soda. A white, solid, 
caustic substance, fusible below red 
heat, and less volatile than the 
potassium compound. Formula, 
NaOH. 

Causticum Commune Mitius. 
(See Common Caustic, Milder.) 

Cauterization. Burning or sear¬ 
ing some part by caustic medicines. 

Cava. A large vein next to the 
heart. 

Caval. Relating to the vena cava, 
the great vein of the right auricle of 
the heart. 

Cavernous. Hollow. 

Cavity. A hollow part of the body. 

Cedar. Various species of the 
juniper and pine. 

Cedar Oil. A volatile oil ob¬ 
tained from red cedar. 

Cedar, Sawdust and Chips. 
Used by the ancient Egyptians as a 
substitute for “excelsior” to fill the 
abdomen. 



LEXICON. 


387 


Cedar Tree Pitch. Mentioned 
by Pliny as used for cheaply em¬ 
balming bodies, was probably a com¬ 
pound of turpentine and creosote pro¬ 
duced bv distillation of the pitch 
pine. According to Herodotus it had 
a corrosive and solvent effect upon 
the viscera. 

Cedma. Chronic rheumatism of 
a joint. 

Cedrat. A species of citron tree. 

Cedria. Cedar tree pitch. 

Cedrin. The supposed active 
principle of the cedron tree, growing 
in Central America. 

Cedrium. Tar. 

Cele. A tumor. 

Cellular. Abounding in cells, 
or composed of cells. 

Cellule. A small cell. 

Cellulose. (See Lignin.) 

Celotomia. A surgical oj)eration 
for hernia. 

Cement. Any glutinous or other 
substance capable of uniting bodies 
in close cohesion. 

Cenotica. Diseases affecting the 
fluids. 

Centigrade. Consisting of a 
hundred degrees; graduated into a 
hundred divisions or parts. 

Centigrade Thermometer. A 
thermometer having the distance be¬ 
tween the freezing and boiling points 
of water divided into one hundred 
degrees. 

Centigramme. In French 
weights, the hundredth part of a 
gramme. 

Centilitre. The hundredth part 
of a litre; a little more than six- 
tenths of a cubic inch. 

Centimetre. In French meas¬ 
ure, the hundredth part of a meter ; 
rather more than thirty-nine hun¬ 
dredths of an inch, English measure. 

Centrifugal. Tending to re¬ 
cede from the centre. 

Centripetal. Tending toward 
the center. 

Centrum Ovale. (L.) The ap¬ 
pearance of the brain when a section | 


is made on a level with the corpus 
callosum. 

Centrum Tendinosum. (L.) 
The center of the diaphragm. 

Cephalalgia. Headache. 

Cepiiale. (G.) The head. 

Cephalic. Pertaining to the head. 

Cephalic Vein. A vein in the 
fold of the elbow. 

Cephalitis. Inflammation of the 
brain. 

Cepiialo-rachidian. Belonging 
to the head and spine. 

Cephalotomy. Removing the 
brain of the fetus in cases of diffi¬ 
cult delivery. 

Cephalotribe. An instrument 
for crushing the head of the fetus. 

Cera Alba. (L.) (White wax.) 
Yellow beeswax bleached by expo¬ 
sure to moisture, air and light. 

Cera Flava. (L.) (Yellow 
wax.) The peculiar concrete sub¬ 
stance or prepared honeycomb of 
the hive-bee, Apis mellifica. 

Ceraceous. Waxlike; partaking 
of the nature of wax. 

Cerasin. A gummy substance 
which swells in cold water but does 
not readily dissolve in it. It is a 
proximate principle of gum, and is 
found in the gums exuding from the 
cherry, apricot , peach and plum 

Cerate. An external medica¬ 
ment having wax and oil as its base. 

Ceratocele. Hernia of the cor¬ 
nea. 

Ceratotome. A knife for divid¬ 
ing the cornea. 

Ceratonia. A genus of plants. 

Ceratonyxis. Piercing of the 
cornea. 

Cere. To wax or to cover with 
wax. 

Cere-cloth. A cloth smeared 
with melted wax, or with some gum¬ 
my or glutinous matter. 

Cerealia. Grain-bearing plants. 

Cerebellum. The symmetrical 

%j 

organ situated in the lower part of the 
cranium; the inferior portion of the 
brain. 






388 


LEXICON. • 


Cerebrin. Red fatty matter of 
the nerve system. 

Cerberus. A mythological mon¬ 
ster guarding the lower regions. 

Cerebritis. Inflammation of the 
brain. 

Cerebrum. Upper forward por¬ 
tion of the brain. 

Cerebral. Relating to the brain. 

Cerebro-spinal. Relating to the 
brain and spinal cord. 

Cerevisi.e Fermentum. (Beer 
Yeast.) The ferment obtained in 
brewing beer. It rises in the form 
of froth to the surface of beer, and 
subsides during the process of fer¬ 
mentation. 

Cerium. A metal discovered in 
Sweden in the mineral cerite, and so 
called from the plant Ceres. It is of 
a great specific gravity, its color a 
grayish white, and its texture lamel¬ 
lar. 

Cerium Nitrate. A salt of ceri¬ 
um, considered to be a nervine tonic, 
and useful in chronic intestinal enac¬ 
tion, chronic vomiting, and irritable 
dyspepsia. 

Cerium Oxalate. (See Cerii 
Oxalas .) 

Ceroma. A fatty tumor. 

Cerous. Waxy. 

Cerulin. The blue principle of 
* indigo. 

Cerumen. Wax. 

Cerumen Aurium. Ear-wax. 

Ceruse. (See Carbonate of 
Lead.) 

Cerussa Acetata. Sugar of 
lead. 

Cervical. Pertaining to the 
neck. 

Cervix. (L.) The neck. 

Cervus. A deer. 

Cetacea. The mammalian order 
comprising whales, etc. 

Cetaceum. (Spermaceti.) A pe¬ 
culiar concrete substance obtained 
from the sperm whale. It is em¬ 
ployed as an ingredient of ointments 
and cerates. 

Cetyl, A hypothetical carbo- 


hydrogen radical composed of six¬ 
teen equivalents of carbon and thirty- 
three of hydrogen, bearing the same 
relation to ethal that ethyl bears to 
alcohol. 

Cevadilla. (Sabadilla.) The 
seed of a plant denominated Verat- 
rum officinale and Helonias officina¬ 
lis, growing in Mexico and the West 
Indies. They are a drastic emeto- 
cathartic and poisonous. 

Chalcite. Sulphate of iron of a 
red color, so far calcined as to have 
lost a considerable part of its acid. 

Chalk. A well-known calcare¬ 
ous earth, of an opaque white color, 
soft, and admitting no polish. It 
contains a large portion of carbonic 
acid, and is a variety of carbonate of 
lime. It is used as an absorbent and 
antacid. 

Chalk, Prepared. (Creta Prew¬ 
ar ala.) Chalk freed from its impu¬ 
rities by washing, and dried in small 
masses. 

Chalk Stones. Concretions oc¬ 
curring in the joints. 

Chalybeate. Impregnated with 
iron; any preparation into which 
iron enters. 

Cham^emelum. A name given 
by the ancients to fresh chamomile 
flowers. 

Chamber, Anterior^ The por¬ 
tion of the eye before the iris, con¬ 
taining aqueous humor. 

Chamber, Posterior. The por¬ 
tion of the eye behind the iris con¬ 
taining aqueous humor. 

Chameleon Mineral. A name 
by which permanganate of potassa is 
sometimes called. 

Chamomile. ( Antliemis .) The 
flowers of Antliemis nobilis, an her¬ 
baceous European plant, growing 
wild in some parts of this country. 

Chancre. A small venereal ul¬ 
cer, having a tendency to spread. 

Charcoal. The remains of wood 
consumed in such a manner as to ex¬ 
clude the air, and consisting mainly 
of pure carbon. 




LEXICON. 


389 


Charcoal, Animal. (See Carlo 
A nimalis .) 

Charlatan. A quack. 

Charon. According to Greek 
mythology, the son of Erebus and 
Nox, who ferried the souls of the 
dead over the rivers Acheron and 
Styx to Hades. 

Charpie. Lint for dressing 
wounds. 

Charqui. “ Jerked meat.” 

Charta. (L.) Paper. 

Chauffer. A small furnace, 
open at the top, used in labora¬ 
tories. 

Cheiloplastic. Surgical forma¬ 
tion of the lip. 

Ciieilos. (G.) The lip. 

Cheiragra. Gout in the hand. 

Chelonion. A deformity of the 
spine. 

Chemism. (See page 114.) 

Chemistry. The science which 
teaches of the nature and proper¬ 
ties of bodies simple and compound, 
inorganic and organized, and inves¬ 
tigates the force or power by which 
atomic combination is effected. 

Chemosis. An inflammation of 
the coat of the eye. 

Cherry Laurel Water. A sed¬ 
ative narcotic obtained from distill¬ 
ing of preparation of cherry laurel 
leaves. 

Chevaster. A bandage for frac¬ 
tures. 

Chian Turpentine. (Pistacia 
Terebinthus.) Turpentine obtained 
from a small tree, growing in Chio 
or Scio, by incisions into its bark. 
On exposure to the air it speedily 
thickens, and ultimately becomes 
concrete. 

Chilblain. A frost bite. 

Chimogene. A compound ob¬ 
tained from the volatile and gaseous 
products of petroleum. 

Chinese Camphor. The cheap¬ 
est and most abundant camphor, 
produced in the island of Formosa, 
and taken from thence to Canton, 
China. 


Chinidine. (Quinidine.) One 
of the cinchona alkaloids. 

Ciiinoidine. (See Amorphous 
Quinia.) 

Ciiirurgeon. A surgeon. 

Ciiirurgery. Surgery. 

Chitin. A glucoside found in 
the wing cases of insects. 

Chlor^ethyi^dene. An anaes¬ 
thetic having the formula C 2 II 4 C1 2 . 

Chloral. A liquid obtained by 
the action of chlorine gas upon al¬ 
cohol. Combined with water it 
forms Hydrate of Chloral, much used 
as an anodyne and soporific. 

Chlorate. Chloric acid com¬ 
bined with some base. 

Chlorate of Potassa. A white 
salt, having the formula KC10 3 , used 
medicinally for a gargle and for se¬ 
vere sore throat, as well as for appli¬ 
cation upon ulcers. 

Chlorate of Quinia. A salt 
formed by crystallizing a solution of 
chlorate of baryta with sulphate of 
quinine. 

Chloric. Pertaining to or de¬ 
rived from Chlorine. 

Chloric Acid. A powerfully ox¬ 
idizing liquid, having the formula 
HC10 3 . 

Chloric Ether. A solution of 
chloroform in alcohol. 

Chloride. A binary compound 
of chlorine with another element. 

Chloride of Ammonium. (See 
Ammonia Hydrochlorate.) 

Chloride of Arsenic Solution. 
A solution obtained from boiling to-' 
gether arsenious acid and hydro- 
chloric acid. 

Chloride of Barium. (See Barii 
Chloridum .) 

Chloride of Bromine. ( ee 

Brom in ii Chloridu in.) 

Chloride of Calcium. (See 

Calcii Chloridum.) 

Chloride of Ethyl. (See Hither 
Muriaticus. 

Chloride of Gold. A metallic 
salt, obtained by dissolving gold in 
three times its weight of nitronmri- 




390 


LEXICON. 


iitic acid with the aid of a moderate 
heat. 

Chloride of Gold and Sodium. 
A double salt, prepared by dissolving 
gold in nitromuriatic acid, evaporat¬ 
ing and dissolving the dry mass in 
distilled water. To this solution 
salt is added. 

Chloride of Iron. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

Chloride of Lime. (See Calebs 
Chloridum .) 

Chloride of Magnesium. A 
bitter and very deliquescent salt, said 
to act mildly as a purgative, produc¬ 
ing a flow of bile and an increase of 
appetite. 

Chloride of Silver. ( Argenti 
Chloridum.) A salt prepared by 
adding a solution of common salt to 
a solution of nitrate of silver, as long 
as it produces a precipitate. 

Chloride of Soda Solution. 
Liquor Sodas Chloratae, Solution of 
Chlorinated Soda, Labarraque^s Dis¬ 
infecting Solution. (See Liquor 
Codes Chlorinates , U. S. Disp.) 

Chloride of Sodium. Common 
salt. 

Chloride of Tin. A chloride 
prepared by heating tin and muriatic 
acid together. Recommended for 
local application in gonorrhoea, etc. 

ChlorideofZinc. ( Zinci Chlori- 
dum.) A salt, which may be obtained 
from the double decomposition be¬ 
tween solutions of chloride of barium 
and sulphate of zinc. The chloride 
of zinc remains in solution, which is 
evaporated, when flaky crystals are 
produced. 

Chloride of Zinc Solution. 

(Liquor Zinci Chlorieli.) Zinc dis¬ 
solved by muriatic acid, and solution 
of chlorine added to convert any 
iron present into the sesquichloride, 
from which it is precipitated by car¬ 
bonate of zinc. It is then brought 
to a certain bulk by the addition of 
water, and filtered. 

Chlorinated Chlorohydric 
Ether. A compound, colorless, 


neutral liquid, having an ethereal 
odor and hot, saccharine taste, pos¬ 
sessing anaesthetic properties similar 
to chloroform. 

Chlorinated Muriatic Ether. 
(See Chlorinated Chlorohydric 
Ether.) 

Chlorinated Soda Solution. 
(See Chloride of Soda Solution.) 

Chlorinated Solution of Mag¬ 
nesia. Dissolve eight ounces of 
Epsom salts in two pints of water; 
mix with four ounces of chlorinated 
lime and four ounces of water. 

Chlorine. An elementary gaseous 
fluid, of a greenish-yellow color and 
characteristic suffocating smell. Its 
specific gravity is 2.47 and equivalent 
number 35.5. It forms about sixty 
per cent of common salt, and is a 
powerful agent in bleaching and dis¬ 
infecting. 

Chloriodic Acid. } A compound 

Chloriodine. j of chlorine 
and iodine. 

Chlorite. A salt formed of 
chlorous acid and a base. ' 

ClILOROAURATE OF AMMONIA. A 
salt, formed by dissolving terchloride 
of gold and muriate of ammonia in 
water, assisted by a few drops of 
nitromuriatic acid, and evaporating 
the solution to dryness. 

Chlorocarbon. A title given to 
the bichloride or tetrachloride of 
carbon. (See Bichloride of Carbon.) 

Chlorocarbonic. } The terms 

Chlorocarbonous. j applied to 
an acid composed of chlorine and 
carbonic oxide, formed by exposing 
a mixture of the two gases to the 
direct solar rays. It has also been 
called Phosgene gas. 

Chlorocyanic. Composed of 
chlorine and cyanogen. 

Chlorocyanogen. A compound 
formed by passing a slow current of 
chlorine through a solution of one 
part hydrocyanic acid in four parts 
anhydrous ether. 

Chloroform. An oleaginous, 
colorless liquid, discovered in 1832, 






LEXICOX. 


301 


prepared by acting upon methyl or 
ethyl alcohol with bleaching powder. 
It produces a temporary but perfect 
insensibility to pain. Formula, 
OHCl 3 . 

Chloroform, C o m m e r c i a l . 
(Chloroformum Venale, Impure 
Chloroform.) Chloroform contain¬ 
ing such impurities as alcohol and 
ether. 

Chloroform, Metiiylic. Chloro¬ 
form prepared by the action of 
chlorinated lime on jiyroxylic or 
wood spirit. 

Chloroform, Normal. Chloro¬ 
form prepared by the action of 
chlorinated lime on alcohol. 

Chloroform, Vexale. (See 
Chloroform, Commercial.) 

Ciilorogexate of Potassa axd 
Caffeix. A double salt existing in 
cotfee. 

Chlorogexic Acid. A11 acid 
contained in coffee. Chlorohydric 
acid. (See Acid, Hydrochloric.) 

Chlorohydrocy axic Acid. An 
acid having the formula C 2 H 2 NCl f) . 

Chlorometer. An instrument 
for testing the bleaching qualities 
of chloride of lime. 

Ciiloromethyl. (See Bichloride 
of Methylen.) 

Chlorometry. Testing the 
bleaching qualities of chlorine com¬ 
pounds. 

Chlorophyll. A green resinoid 
body present in plants, soluble in 
ether. 

Chlorosis. Green sickness. 

Chlorotic . Affected with chlor¬ 
osis. 

Chlorous Acid. An unstable 
acid, easily decomposed. A power¬ 
ful oxidizing and bleaching agent. 
Formula, II C10 2 . 

Chlorovaleriaxic. A compound 
of chlorine and valerianic acid. 

Chloroxalic Acid. An old term 
for chloracetic acid. 

Chlorsulphoform. A yellowish 
crystalline compound, somewhat 
soluble in alcohol. 


Ciiloruret. An old term for 
chloride. 

Choke Damp. A suffocating com¬ 
pound of gases encountered in 
mines. 

Ciiolasmia. A disease caused by 
the entering of the taurocholates, 
etc., into the blood. 

Cholalic Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained by decomposing cholic or 
taurocholic acids by heat. 

Chore. (G.) Bile. 

Cholecyst. The gall bladder. 

Choledochus. That which con¬ 
tains the bile. 

Choleixate of Soda. A natu¬ 
ral constituent of bile. 

Cholepyrrhix. The coloring 
principle of ox-gall. 

Cholera. A severe, rapid and 
dangerous disease, characterized by 
repeated vomiting and frequent 
stools. 

Cholera Ixfaxtum. The sum¬ 
mer complaint in children. 

Ciiolesterix. A fatty substance 
obtained from bile and biliary con¬ 
cretions. 

Cholic Acid. (Glycocholicacid.) 
A nitrogenous acid obtained from 

I ^ 

the gall of the ox. Formula, C 2i H 40 - 
0 5 . 

Cholix. The energetic base of 
ox-bile. 

Cholixic Acid. A resinous acid 
obtained from bilin. 

Ciioloidic Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained from cholic acid. 

Ciioxdrix. An animal solid re¬ 
sulting from the action of boiling 
water upon the cartilages of the ribs 
and joints. 

Ciioxdrodite. A light yellow 
mineral, also called Brucite. 

Ciioxdrogex. A gelatinous prin¬ 
ciple of cartilage. 

Cnox drolog y . A treatise upon 
cartilages. 

Choxdros. Cartilage. 

Chopix. A French liquid meas¬ 
ure containing about a pint. 

Chorda. A tendon. 







392 


LEXICON. 


Chords Vocales. The vocal 
ligaments. 

Chorea. St. Vitus’ Dance. An 
involuntary movement of certain or¬ 
gans. 

Chorion. The outer envelope 
of the fetus. 

Chorium. The skin. 

Choroid. Resembling the cho¬ 
rion. The name of certain mem¬ 
branes in the brain. 

Chromate. A compound made 
by the union of chromic acid with a 
base. 

Chromate of Potassa. A yellow 
crystalline salt obtained by fusing 
chrome iron ore with potassium car¬ 
bonate . Formula, K 2 Cr 0 4 . 

Chromatics. The science of 
colors. 

Chrome. ) A hard crystalline 

Chromium, j metal, whose com¬ 
pounds are remarkable for fine 
bright color. It is the most infusi¬ 
ble of all metals. 

Chrome Green. A mixture of 
chrome yellow and Prussian blue. 

Chrome Yellow. (Chromate 
of Lead.) A yellow poison¬ 
ous pigment prepared by the 
action of lead acetate on potassic 
chromate. When heated it turns 
brown and evolves oxygen. 

Chromic Acid. (See Acid, Chro¬ 
mic.) 

Chromium Alum. A compound 
obtained by heating together one 
part of bicarbonate of potassa and 
four of sulphuric acid. It is ob¬ 
tained in the manufacture of aniline 
dyes. 

. Chromium Sesquioxide. A pow¬ 
der obtained by igniting together 
picric acid and bichromate of am¬ 
monia . 

Chromocyanogens. Compounds 
having chromium and cyanogen for 
a base. 

Chronic. A disease of long pe¬ 
riod . 

Chrysocolla. A Greek name 
for borax. 


Chulariose. (Fruit Sugar, Levu- 
lose.) Sugar as it exists in fruit. 
An isomeric form of glucose found 
in honey and the juice of fruits. It 
is generated from cane sugar by so¬ 
lution m water or weak acids, and 
long boiling. 

Ciiyazic. A term applied some¬ 
times to the compounds of hydrocy¬ 
anic acid. 

Chyle. The white blood of the 
lacteals. 

Chyliferous Vessels. The lac¬ 
teals. 

Chylopoietic. Chyle-producing. 

Chyme. The food in the intes¬ 
tines. 

Chymification. The conversion 
of food into the state of chyme. 

Cibus. Food. 

Cicatrix. A scar remaining af¬ 
ter the healing of a wound. 

Cicatrization. Formation of a 
cicatrix. 

Cicer Arietinum. (L.) The 
chick-pea, a plant, the bristles of 
which contain considerable free ox¬ 
alic acid. 

Cicuta Vi rosa. (L.) (Cowbane, 
Water Hemlock.) A perennial, um¬ 
belliferous European plant, proving 
fatally poisonous to most animals 
which feed upon it, though said to 
be eaten with impunity by £oats and 
sheep. 

Cilia. The hair of the eyelids , 
fine filaments resembling hairs. 

Ciliary. Pertaining to the eye¬ 
lashes. 

Ciliary Motion. Vibrations of 
cilia. 

Cilium. (L.) The eyelid or eye¬ 
lash. 

Cillosis. A spasm of the eve- 
lid. 

Cincholin. (Quinolein.) A n 
oily liquid, produced by the conden¬ 
sation of the acrid vapor obtained 
from cinchonia when heated with 
caustic potassa. It can also be ob¬ 
tained in the same manner from 
quinia, quinidia, and strychnia. 





LEXICON. 


Cinchona. A name given to a 
genus of the Peruvian bark in honor 
of the Countess of Cinchon. A vast 
number of plants belong to this 
genus. 

Cinchona Sulphate. A salt ob¬ 
tained from the solution remaining 
after the crystallization of sulphate 
of quinia. It resembles quinine. 

Cinchonia. A crystalline sub- 
tance obtained by the action of po- 
tassa upon an alcoholic extract of 
Peruvian bark. 

Cinchonic Acid. (Quinic Acid.) 
An acid contained in Peruvian 
bark. 

Cinchonidia. (Cinchonidine.) 
An alkaloid derived from cinchonia, 
from which it differs in being more 
soluble in ether. 

Cinchonidine. (See Cinchoni¬ 
dia.) 

Cinchonine. (See Cinchonia.) 

Cinerary. Pertaining to or con- 
taing ashes; funereal. 

Cineritious. Ash-colored. 

Cinesis. Motion. 

Cinetica. Diseases of the mus- 
les. 

Cinetus. The diaphragm. 

Cingulum. The waist. 

Cinnabar. (See Bisulphate of 
Mercury.) 

Cinnamic Acid. A colorless, 
crystalline, sourish, volatilized acid, 
soluble in alcohol and slightly so in 
water, obtained from the oil of cin¬ 
namon by the action of oxygen. 

Cinnamomum. (Cinnamon.) The 
aromatic bark of Cinnamomum Zey- 
lanicum. 

Cinnamon Leaf Oil. A volatile 
oil, obtained from the leaves of cin¬ 
namon . 

Circle of Willis. A circle at the 
base of the brain, formed by the ante¬ 
rior and posterior cerebral arteries 
and the communicating arteries of 
Willis. 

Circulation. The movement of 
fluids through the system. 

Circulus. A ring. 


Cirrhosis. Yellow granulations 
in the liver. 

Cirsoscele . Varicose* tumor. 

Cirsophthalmia . Varicose oph¬ 
thalmia. 

Citrate. A salt formed bv the 

• • • • • 

union of citric acid with a base. 

Citrene. A crystalline com¬ 
pound of hydrogen and carbon, ob¬ 
tained from the essential oil of lem¬ 
ons. 

Citric. Pertaining to the lemon. 

Citric Acid. (See Acid, Citric.) 

Citrinus. (L.) Lemon-colored. 

Civet. ( Zybethum .) An odorous 
substance obtained from the civet- 
cat. It is insoluble in water, and is 
used chiefly as a perfume. 

Cl. Symbol for Chlorine. 

Claret. A light red French 
wine. 

Clarification . Making clear 
from solid matter in suspensions. 
Liquids can be clarified by the addi¬ 
tion of some coagulable substance, 
such as the white of an egg. 

Classification. Methodical ar¬ 
rangement . 

Clauderus. A celebrated an¬ 
cient embalmer. 

C l a u st r u m . A sh uttin gup. 

Clavatus. Clubbed. 

Clavicle. The collar-bone. 

Clay. An aluminium silicate 
resulting from the disintegration 
and decomposition of felspar by the 
action of air and water, the soluble 
alkali being washed away. 

Climacteric Disease. A change 
in the constitution at an advanced 
period in life resulting in loss of 
flesh and strength. 

Clinic. Instruction given in the 
hospital at the bedside of the pa¬ 
tients. 

Clinoid. Four processes upon 
the sphenoid bone. 

Cloaca. The rectum of birds, 
reptiles and fishes—also a sewer. 

Clonic. An irregular spasm. 

Club Foot. A deformity of the 
foot. 



394 


LEXICON. 


Clydon. Flatulence. 

Clyster. A liquid substance in¬ 
jected into the intestines. 

Co. Symbol for cobalt. 

Coadjuvant. An ingredient in 
a prescription designed to aid some 
other ingredient. 

Coagulant. That which pro¬ 
duces coagulation. 

Coagulate. To curdle; to change 
from a fluid into a fixed substance or 
solid mass. 

Coagulation. Changing from 
a liquid state to a thickened, semi¬ 
solid state. 

Coagulum. A clot or curd. 

Coalesce. To grow together; 
to unite by natural affinity or at¬ 
traction. 

Coal-gas Liquor. A liquor ob¬ 
tained in the manufacture of coal 
gas, from which large quantities of 
carbonate of ammonia are manufac¬ 
tured. 

Coalition. Union in a body or 
mass; a coming together, as of sep¬ 
arate body or parts, and their union j 
in a body or mass. 

Coal Naphtha. (Commercial 
Benzine.) A naphtha obtained by 
the distillation of coal-gas tar. 

Coal Tar. A dark, thick liquid 
or semi-liquid resulting from the dry 
distillation of bituminous coal. 

Coal-Tar Acids. Liquid acids, 
called respectively rosolic, brunolic, 
carbolic or phenic, acetic, and bu¬ 
tyric . They are obtained from coal 
tar by distillation and rectification. 

Coal-Tar Alkaloids. * Alka¬ 
loids obtained from coal tar, called 
anilin, quinolin, picolin, toluidin, 
lutidin, cumidin, phaetin, etc., etc. 

Coal-Tar Creasote. An im¬ 
proper name for a number of impure 
liquors imported from Germany, 
consisting of mixtures of carbolic 
acid with cresylic acid, coloring 
matter, etc., of which the former 
constitutes but a small proportion. 

Coaptation. Fitting together 
the two ends of a broken bone. 


Cobalt. A metal of a reddish- 
gray or grayish-white color, very 
brittle, of a fine, close grain, com¬ 
pact, but easily reducible to pow¬ 
der. 

Cocain. A peculiar alkaloid, ob¬ 
tained from coca. 

Coccyx . The small bone at the 
end of the spinal column. 

Coccygeus. Pertaining to the 
coccyx. 

Cochineal. (Coccus.) The ge¬ 
nus of insects Coccus, the dried fe¬ 
males of which constitute the cochi¬ 
neal of commerce, used for red col¬ 
oring. They are found wild in 
Mexico and Central America. 

Cochlea. The round labyrinth 
of the ear. 

Cochleare. (L.) A spoon. 

Cochlearium. (L.) A spoon- 
ful. 

Cochleatus. Spiral. 

Cocles. (L.) One-eyed. 

Coco-Olein. The liquid part of 
cocoanut oil. 

Coction. The act of boiling or 
exposing to heat in liquor. 

Codeia. An alkaloid existing in 
opium, combined with meconic 
acid . It is soluble in water. 

Codex. A book; a code. 

Codocelle. (See Bubo.) 

Ccecum. A pouch at the begin¬ 
ning of the colon. 

Ccelia. The lower part of the 
abdomen. 

C celiac. An artery and vein of 
the abdomen. 

C celiac Passion. The colic. 

C celiac a. Diseases of the diges¬ 
tive function. 

Coffin. Derived from a Greek 
word which signifies a basket, coffer, 
or chest. 

Cognac. The best kind of brandy; 
so named from a town in France. 

Cohere. To stick together. 

Cohesion . The act of sticking 
together. 

Cohesive . That has the power of 
sticking. 










LEXICON. 


395 


Coho bate . Among early chem¬ 
ists, to repeat the distillation of the 
same liquor, or that from the same 
body, pouring the liquor back upon 
the substance contained in the 
vessel. 

Coke. The charcoal resulting 
from the drv distillation of bitumin- 

4 / 

ous coal. 

Colatoreum. (L.) A strainer. 

Colatura. Strained fluid. 

Colcothar. (Polishing Itouge.) 
Anhydrous sesquioxide of iron. 
(See Turning Sulphuric Acid.) 

Cold Abscess. One which is the 
result of chronic inflammation. 

Colic. Pain in the abdomen. 

Colitis. Inflammation of the 
mucous membrane of the colon. 

Collagen. (Osseine.) A gel¬ 
atinous principle, occurring in bone, 
animal membrane, epidermis, etc. 

Collapse. Failure of vital pow¬ 
ers. 

Collation. The act of straining 

o 

or purifying liquors by passing them 
through a perforated vessel. 

Colliculus. (L.) A small em¬ 
inence. 

Colliquable. That may be liq¬ 
uified or melted; liable to melt, grow 
soft or become fluid. 

Colliquant. That has the power 
of dissolving or melting. 

Colliquate. To melt or dis¬ 
solve. 

Colliquative. Dissolving. 

Collisus . Contused. 

Colli Musculi. (L.) Muscles 
of the neek. 

Collodes. Glue. 

Collodion. ( Collodium .) A 
preparation formed by dissolving 
gun-cotton in ether, assisted by a 
little alcohol. It is employed for 
various purposes in surgery. 

Collodion, Flexible. (Collo- 
diwtn Flexile .) Made by mixing to¬ 
gether six ounces of collodion, one 
hundred and twenty grains of bal¬ 
sam fir, and one drachm of castor 
oil. 


Collodion, Glycerized. (Glyc- 
erized Collodion.) An elastic collo¬ 
dion, formed by mixing two parts of 
glycerin with one hundred of collo¬ 
dion . 

Colloids. A name given to a 
class of substances resembling glue 
in their power of gelatinizing. 

Collum. (L.) The neck. 

Cologne Water. A solution in 
alcohol of various volatile odorous 
oils, such as oils of bergamot, 
orange-flower, cinnamon, etc. 

Colon. The great intestine. 

Colonitis. Inflammation of the 
colon. 

Colophene. Resin oil. 

Colo phonic Acid. An acid pro¬ 
duced in the distillation of common 
yellow resin. 

Colophonine. An oxygenated 
oil, obtained by the destructive dis¬ 
tillation of commercial rosin. 

Colophony. A name applied to 
the resin which remains after the 
distillation of turpentine. 

Colorectitis. Dysentery. 

Colostrum. First milk of a wo¬ 
man who has been confined. 

Colum. (L.) A strainer. 

Columbaria. Plural of colum¬ 
barium. 

Columbarium. (L.) “A dove¬ 
cote. ” Among the Romans, a 
building provided with niches for 
the reception of cinerary urns. 

Colum bate. A compound of co¬ 
in mbic acid with some base. 

Columbic Acid. A white, flaky 
acid obtained from columbo root, 
soluble in alcohol, slightly so in 
Avater and ether. 

Columbium. An exceedingly 
rare metallic element, discovered by 
Hatchett in 1801, in a mineral called 
columbite. 

Columna. (L.) A pillar. 

Colutorium. (L.) A gargle. 

Colza Oil. A liquid obtained 
from Brassica campestris, used for 
soap-making. 

Coma. An abnormal stupor. 



396 


LEXICON. 


Comatose. In a state of stupor. 

Combination. Intimate union 
or association or two or more par¬ 
ticles; chemical union; union by 
affinity. 

Combine. To unite by affinity or 
chemical union. 

Combustible. A substance that 
will take fire and burn; a body 
which, in its rapid union with oth¬ 
ers, disengages heat and light. 

Combustion. The union of in¬ 
flammable substances with oxygen, 
attended with light and in most in¬ 
stances with heat ; the disengage¬ 
ment of heat and light which accom¬ 
panies chemical combination. 

Combustion, Spontaneous. The 
igniting arising from chemical com¬ 
bination without external agency. 

Comma Bacillus. A species of 
microbe, so named from its resemb¬ 
lance in form to a comma; supposed 
to be the cause of the Asiatic 
cholera. 

Commercial Chloroform. (See 
Chloroformum Venale .) 

Commercial Muriatic Acid. 
(Impure Muriatic Acid.) Muriatic 
acid containing such impurities as 
sulphurous and sulphuric acid, free 
chlorine, nitrous acid, etc., etc. 

Commercial Sulphate of Iron. 
(Copperas, Green Vitriol.) Sulphate 
of iron, containing such impurities 
as sesquioxide of iron, copper, zinc, 
alumina, magnesia, etc., etc. 

Commi. The outside bandages 
which surround an Egyptian mummy 
are made of cotton cloth soaked in 
commi an unknown kind of resin. 

Comminuted. Triturated; pul¬ 
verized. 

Comminuted Fracture. Break¬ 
ing of a bone into small splinters. 

Comminution. The act of re¬ 
ducing to a fine powder; pulveriza¬ 
tion. 

Commissure. A point where two 
parts join together. 

Commix. To mix; to blend. 

Commixtion. A mixture. 


Commixture. The mass formed 
by mixture. 

Common Caustic, Milder. 
(Caustic Commune Mitius.) A 
preparation made by evaporating a 
.solution of potassa to one-third, and 
adding lime enough to form a firm 
paste. 

Common Salt. (See Chloride of 
Sodium.) 

Common Water. (Aqua.) A 
term applied to rain, snow, spring, 
river, well, lake, and marsh waters, 
of which the rain and snow are the 
purest. 

Compatible. That can be mixed 
without mutual interference. 

Complex. Resulting from several 
different things being brought to¬ 
gether. 

Complexes. (L.) A surrounding. 

Complicated Fracture. A frac¬ 
ture attended with dislocation or in¬ 
jury of a joint. 

Composition. The combination 
of different substances, or substances 
of different natures, by affinity; 
from which results a compound sub¬ 
stance, differing in properties from 
either of the component parts. 

Compositus. Compound. 

Compound. A mixture formed 
by the union of two or more ingredi¬ 
ents. 

Compound Fracture. A frac¬ 
ture attended with laceration by the 
end of the bone. 

Compresses. Pieces of soft linen 
or sponge used in dressing wounds. 

Compressibility. The quality 
of bodies by virtue of which they 
can be made to occupy a smaller 
space. Gases are the most compres¬ 
sible, and obey the law of Boyle, that 
the volume varies inversely as the 
pressu re. 

Compressor. Name given to 
muscles which press certain parts 
together. 

Concentrate. To increase the 
specific gravity of a substance; to 
make stronger. 



LEXICON. 


397 


Conceptaculum. (L.) A receiver. 

Conception. Impregnation of 
the ovum. 

Concha. (L.) A shell. 

Concoction. Old term for di¬ 
gestion. 

Concrement. A growing to¬ 
gether ; the collection or mass 
formed by concretion or natural 
union. 

Concrescence. Growth or in¬ 
crease; the act of growing or in¬ 
creasing by spontaneous union or 
the coalescence of separate particles. 

Concrete. To congeal, to 
thicken, to coagulate. A compound; 
a mass formed b} r concretion. 

Concretion. Growing together; 
a calculus. 

Concussion. A blow caused by 
falling. 

Condensation. Making more 
dense or compact. Bringing the 
component parts of a gas or vapor 
nearer one another by pressure or 
cold. 

Condenser. A vessel in which 
vapors are reduced to a liquid form. 

Condensation. Diminution of 
volume. 

Condenser. An instrument for 
compressing vapor. 

Condiment. Seasoning. 

Conditura . The embalming of 
the dead. 

Conduit. A canal. 

Condyle. A bony projection. 

Condyloid. Wart-like. 

Confection. A pulpy prepara¬ 
tion of powdered substances mixed 
with syrup or honey. 

Confluent. Running together. 

Conformation. Natural ar¬ 
rangement of different parts of the 
body. 

Congeal. To change from a 
liquid to a solid state as in freezing ; 
to grow stiff or thick. 

Congelation. Changing a liquid 
to a solid. 

Congenital. Existing at the 
time of birth. 


Congestion. Accumulation of 
blood in an organ. 

Congestive. Arising from con¬ 
gestion. 

Conglobate. Gathered into a 
ball. 

Conglomerate. Blended to¬ 
gether. 

Conglutinate. To unite by ad¬ 
hesion. 

Conia. (Coniine.) The active 
principle of hemlock leaves. 

Conicus. (L.) Conical. 

Coniferin. A principle resem¬ 
bling salicin, discovered in the bark 
of turpentine trees. 

Conjunctiva. A mucous mem¬ 
brane uniting the globe of the eye to 
the lids. 

Conjunctivitis. Inflammation 
of the conjunctiva. 

Conjunctus. (L.) Joined to¬ 
gether. 

Connate. Congenital. 

Connective Tissue. The most 
common of all the organic tissues, 
constituting the net-work which 
connects the minute parts of most 
of the structures of the body. 

Conoid. Cone-shaped. 

Consecutive. Following after ; 
secondary. 

Consensus. The sympathy ex¬ 
isting between different parts of the 
body. 

Conserve. A mixture of fresh 
vegetable substances with sugar. 

Consistence.) Degree of near- 

Consistency. j ness or union be¬ 
tween the molecules of a body which 
causes the body to resist in a greater 
or less degree the forces tending to 
divide it. 

Conspectus. A theory, view or 
plan. 

Constipation. Retention of the 
feces within the rectum. 

Constituent. The principal in¬ 
gredients in a compound. 

Constitutional. Hereditary, 
of acquired predisposition; involv¬ 
ing the whole system. 






308 


LEXICON. 


Constrictive. Stopping the 
flow of blood ; astringent. 

Constrictor. That which binds 
together. 

Constringent. A medicine pos¬ 
sessing the quality of contracting, 
binding, or compressing. 

Consultation. A gathering of 
physicians about a sick person to de¬ 
liberate upon means of cure. 

Consumption. A wasting disease 
of the lungs. 

Contagion. The spreading of 
disease by contact. 

Contagious. Capable of causing 
contagion. 

Contagious Sympathy. Dis¬ 
eased organs affecting adjacent struc¬ 
tures without direct continuity. 

Continuity. Direct connection. 

Continuous Sympathy. Prop¬ 
agation of disease along a continuous 
surface. 

Continent. Chaste. 

Contortion. Twisting. 

Contra-Aperture. A counter¬ 
opening. 

Contractility. The inherent 
quality by which fibers contract in 
one direction and broaden in another. 

Contraction. Drawing to¬ 
gether ; mutual approach of the 
molecules of anv bodv. 

Contusion. A bruise. 

Convalescence. A period be¬ 
tween the cessation of disease and 
the recovery of the normal powers. 

Convalescent. Recovering. 

Convective. Carrying. 

Convergent. Turned inward. 

Convex. Rising or swelling into 
a spherical or rounded form. 

Convexity. Rotundity. 

Convolute. Rolled upon itself. 

Convoluted. Twisted. 

Convolutions. Windings. 

Convulsion. Violent contrac¬ 
tion of muscles. 

Copal. A concrete resinous juice 
which exudes from several trees in 
the East Indies. It is a hard, shin¬ 
ing transparent, citron-colored and 


inodorous substance, which resembles 
amber. In solution, diluted with 
turpentine, it forms a varnish. 

Cophosis. Deafness. 

Copper. ( Cuprum .) A metal of 
a pale red color, tinged with yellow. 
Next to gold, silver, and platinum, 
it is the most ductile and malleable 
of the metals, and it is more elastic 
than any metal except steel. 

Copperas. (See Commercial Sul¬ 
phate of Iron.) 

Copula. A ligament. 

Copyopia. Dimness of sight. 

Cor. (L.) The heart. 

Coracoid. Shaped like a crowds 
beak. 

Corallium. (L.) Coral. 

Coralloid. Coral-like. 

Cord a. {Chorda.) A cord. 

Corda Tympani. (L.) A nerve 
of the ear. (Chorda Tympain.) 

Core. The pupil of the eye. 

Coretomia. An operation for an 
artificial pupil. 

Coriaceous. Leather-like. 

Corium. Skin; leather. 

Cornea. The thickest of the 
coats of the eye. 

Corneitis. Inflammation of the 
cornea. 

Cornu. (L.) A horn. 

Cornu Cervi. (L.) Hartshorn. 

Cornutus. (L.) Horn-shaped. 

Corolla. Petals of a flower. 

Corona. The crown of the head. 

Coronoid. Shaped like a crow’s 
beak; a process of the jaw, etc. 

Corpora. (L.) Bodies. 

Corpora Malpighi ana. (L.) 
Dark points in the kidneys. 

Corpulent. Fleshy. 

Corpus. (L.) A body. 

Corpus Cavernosum. (L.) Erec¬ 
tile* spongy tissue. 

Corpuscle. An atom. 

Corrigent. Substances added to 
a medicine to make it more mild or 
modify its action. 

Corroborant. Strengthening. 

Corrode. Literally “ to eat 
away. ” Destroying the texture of a 



LEXICON. 


399 


body, more especially of a living- 
body, as by the mineral acids and 
caustic alkalies. 

Corrosive. That which corrodes 
or devours a substance. 

Corrosive Sublimate. (See Bi¬ 
chloride of Mercury.) 

Corrugation. Wrinkling of the 
skin. 

Corrugator. A muscle which 
causes wrinkling. 

Cortex. Bark; rind. 

Cortical. Pertaining to or re¬ 
sembling bark. 

Corundrum. A hard mineral. 

Coryphe. The point; extremity. 

Coryza. Catarrhal inflammation 
of the mucous membrane. 

Cosmetic. A preparation for beau¬ 
tifying the skin. 

Cossis. A small pimple. 

Costal. Pertaining to the ribs. 

Costalis Pleura. That part of 
the lining of the thorax beneath the 
ribs. 

Costiveness. An unnatural de¬ 
tention of fecal matter in the bowels. 

Costoxiphoid. The name of a 
ligament uniting the cartilage of the 
seventh rib to the xiphoid cartilage. 

Cotyloid. Shaped like a cup. 

Couching. An operation for cat¬ 
aract. 

Coumarin. The active constitu¬ 
ent of the Tonka bean. 

Counter Irritation. Irritation 
in some part of the body for the pur¬ 
pose of relieving excitement in an¬ 
other part. 

Counter Extension. Applying 
force in an opposite direction while 
tension is being made in reducing 
dislocations. 

Coup. A stroke ; a blow. 

Courses. The menses. 

Court-plaster. A plaster made 
by applying to silk of various colors, 
by means of a brush, first a solution 
of isinglass and afterward a solution 
of benzoin. 

Couvre Chef. (F.) A bandage 
for the head. 


; Cowper's Glands. Two small 

[ glands in the vicinity of the prostate 
gland. 

s Coxa. (L.) The hip. 

Coxalgia. Pain in the hip. 

Coxarius Morbus. (L.) Hip 
disease. 

- Cr. Symbol for chromium. 

Cranium. The skull. 

Craniology. The science of 
skulls; phrenology. 

Cranioscopy. Inspection of 
skulls. 

Crassamentum. Clot or coagu- 
lum. 

Cream of Tartar. (See Acid 
Tartrate of Potash.) 

Cream of Tartar, Soluble. A 
preparation formed by boiling six 
parts of cream of tartar and two of 
borax in water, and filtering to sepa¬ 
rate the tartrate of lime. 

Creasote. (Creasotum.) A pe¬ 
culiar substance, obtained from wood 
tar by distillation. It is an oily, 
colorless liquid, having the smell of 
smoke, often called oil of smoke. 

Creasote Water. (Aqua Urea - 
soli.) Mix and agitate, till the solu¬ 
tion is perfect, one drachm of crea¬ 
sote with one pint of distilled water. 

Creatin. A crystalline, soluble 
organic base, obtained from the juice 
of flesh. 

Creatinin. A crystalline soluble 
product of the dehydration of crea¬ 
tin ; one of the constituents of urine. 
Formula, C 4 H 7 N 3 0. 

Cremaster. Suspensory muscle 
of the testis. 

Cremation. The burning of the 
dead. 

Crematory. A building contain¬ 
ing a furnace for cremation. 

Cremor. An oily substance 
floating upon the surface of a liquid. 

Cremor Tartari. (See Acid 
Tartrate of Potash.) 

Crenatus. (L.) Wavy, notched. 

Crepitant. Making a crackling 
sound. 

Crepitation. Crackling. 






400 


LEXICON. 


Crepitus. (L.) A rattling or 
crackling sound ; the grating of the 
ends of broken bones. 

Crest of the Ilium. Upper 
edge of the pelvis. 

Crest of the Tibia. The for¬ 
ward edge of the large bone of the 
lower leg. 

Cresyl. A fetid substance exist¬ 
ing in carbolic acid in the sulphur¬ 
etted state. 

Cresylic Acid. A principle 
contained in coal tar, closely anal¬ 
ogous to carbolic acid. 

Cresylic Alcohol. A principle 
in coal tar which adheres tenaciously 
to carbolic acid, and causes it to be¬ 
come brown on exposure to the air. 

Creta. (L.) Chalk. 

Creta Preparata. (L.) Ob¬ 
tained by mixing powdered chalk 
with water, and drying the sedi¬ 
ment. 

Cretaceous. Resembling or 
containing chalk. 

Cretinism. An idiotic affection, 
sometimes hereditary, developed in 
certain localities, often in connection 
with the goitre. 

Cribratus. (L.) Perforated like 

a sieve. 

Cribriform . Sieve-shaped. 

Crico-Arytenoid, j Muscles 

Crico-Pharyngei. y of the 

Crico-Thyroides. ) throat. 

Cricoid. Ring-like ; a cartilage 
at the lower part of the larynx. 

Crimnodes. Resembling bran. 

Crinones. Grubs. 

Crinus. (L.) The hair. 

Crisis. A critical change in the 
course of a disease. 

Crista. (L.) A crest. 

Crista Galli. Cockscomb; a 
process.of the ethmoid bone. 

Critical. Pertaining to a turn¬ 
ing-point ; decisive. 

Crotchet. An instrument for 
removinga fetus. 

Orotalus. The rattle-snake. 

Croton Tiglium. A small tree 
or shrub, growing in the East Indies, 


the seeds of which constitute the 
main supply of the croton oil of 
commerce. 

Croup. Inflammation of the 
trachea. 

Crucial. Cross-like. 

Crucial Ligaments. Ligaments 
in the knee-joint. 

Crucible. An earthern or metal 
vessel placed in the fire in order to 
fuse refractory substances. 

Crude. Rough; not changed 
from its natural state. 

Crude Pyroligneous Acid. Im¬ 
pure acetic acid obtained from the 
distillation of wood. 

Cruor. The red part of the 
blood. 

Crura. (L.) The legs. 

Crural. Pertaining to the leg 
or thigh. 

Cruraeus. ) Muscles and nerves 

Cruralis. f of the leg. 

Crus. (L.) The thigh. 

Crusta. A shell; scum. 

• Crusta Lactea. Milk-scab. 

Crustacea. Shell-fish. 

Cryopiiorus. An instrument for 
determining the amount of cold pro¬ 
duced by evaporation. 

Crypt. A subterranean cell ; 
especially a vault under a church, 
used for burial purposes. 

Cryptae. (L.) Pits; concealed 
mucous follicles. 

Cryptophanic Acid. Anorganic 
dibasic acid, found in urine. 

Crystal. An inorganic body, 
which, by the operation of affinity, 
has assumed the form of a regular 
solid, terminated by a certain num¬ 
ber of plane and smooth surfaces. 

Crystalline. Clear; pellucid; 
a name given to the lens of the eye. 

Crystallization. Solidifying of 
liquids in regular forms. 

Crystallize. To cause to form 
crystals. 

Crystallography. Science of 
the form and structure of crys¬ 
tals. 

Crystalloids. A name applied 




LEXICON. 


401 


to all crystallizable substances which 
are highly diffusible. 

Crystals of Tartar. (Cream of 
Tartar.) 

Crystals of Venus. A name 
applied to the neutral acetate or 
crystallized acetate of copper. 

Cu. Symbol for copper. 

CubiC Nitre. (Nitrate of Soda.) 
A salt obtained by treating carbonate 
of soda with nitric acid. Found 
native in Peru. Formula Na N0 3 . 

Cubital. Pertaining to the fore¬ 
arm. 

Cubitus. The fore-arm. 

Cuboides. Cube-shaped. A bone 
in the ankle. 

Culture Fluid. A fluid pre¬ 
pared for the cultivation of bac¬ 
teria. 

Curourbit. A cupping-glass. 

Culex. (L.) A gnat. 

Culinary. Pertaining to the 
kitchen. 

Cuneiform. Wedge-shaped. 

Cuneiform Bones. Bones of the 
ankle. 

Cupel. A shallow cup. 

Cupellation. Refining metals 
in a cupel. 

Cupping. Drawing blood by scari¬ 
fying and the use of cupping-glasses. 

Cupping-Glass. A glass vessel, 
like a cup, to be applied to the skin 
before and after scarification for 
drawing blood. 

Cupri Acetas. (L.) See Acetate 
of Copper.) 

Cupri Nitras. (L.) (Nitrate of 
Copper.) A salt employed as a 
caustic in severe cases of ulceration 
of the throat and tongue. 

Cupri Sulphas. (Sulphate of 
Copper,Blue Vitriol.) A brilliant blue 
salt obtained by heating sulphuric 
acid and copper together, dissolving 
the soluble product in hot water, 
and evaporating the solution to crys¬ 
tallization. 

Cupro-Sulpiiate of Ammonia. 
A double salt, obtained by dropping 
a solution of pure ammonia into a 
26 


solution of sulphate of copjoer until 
the subsalt first thrown down is dis¬ 
solved; then concentrating and pre¬ 
cipitating by alcohol. 

Cuprum. (L.) (See Copper.) 

Cuprum Aluminatum. (Lapis 
Divinus, Pierre Divine.) A prep¬ 
aration formed by mixing, in pow¬ 
der, three ounces each of sulphate of 
copper, nitrate of potassa, and alum, 
heating the mixture in a crucible so 
as to produce watery fusion; then 
mixing in a drachm of powdered 
camphor. 

Cuprum Ammoniatum. (L.) (Am- 
moniated Copper.) A crystalline 
violet-colored powder with a sharp 
taste, used as tonic and astringent. 
Prepared from blue vitrol and car¬ 
bonate ammonia. 

Cupula. The cup of the acorn. 

Cupuliferae. The oak and chest¬ 
nut families of trees. 

Cura. Cure; care; treatment. 

Curative . Health-restoring. 

Curd. Thickened milk. 

Curculis . The throat. 

Curcuma. Turmeric. 

Curette. An instrument with a 
spoon-shaped end, for extracting 
foreign substances from the bladder, 

O 

etc. 

Curvative. A deviation from a 
straight line. 

Cuspidati. Canine teeth ; eye¬ 
teeth. 

Cuspis. A point. 

Gustos. (L.) A guard. 

Cutaneous. Pertaining to the 
skin. 

Cuticle. Epidermis; the defen¬ 
sive covering of the true skin. 

Cutis Anserina. (L.) Goose- 
skin. 

Cutis Vera. (L.) The true skin. 

Cyanate. A saline compound of 
cyanic acid with a base. 

Cyanhydrociiloric Acid. A 
crystalline compound, odorless, of a 
saline taste, soluble in water, alco¬ 
hol and glacial acetic acid, but rap¬ 
idly changed in these solutions. 




402 


LEXICON. 


Cyanic Acid. A compound of 
cyanogen and oxygen. 

Oyantde. A basic compound of 
cyanogen with some other element 
or compound. 

Cyanide of Ethyl. (See AElher 
Hyclrocyanicus .) 

Cyanide of Gold. A salt em¬ 
ployed in syphilis and obstinate ul¬ 
cers. 

Cyandide of Mercury. (See 
Bicyanide of Mercury.) 

Cyanide of Potassium. (Cyan- 
uret of Potassium.) A cyanide ob¬ 
tained by passing a current of 
strongly heated nitrogen over char¬ 
coal, impregnated with carbonate of 
potassa. It is very poisonous, act¬ 
ing like prussic acid as a poison and 
as a medicine. 

Cyanide of Silver. (See Ar¬ 
gent i Cyanidum.) 

Cyanide of Zinc. ( Zinci Cyani¬ 
dum.) A cyanide precipitated as a 
white insoluble powder, by adding 
a solution of cyanide of potassium to 
a solution of sulphate of zinc until 
it ceases to produce a precipitate. 

Cyanosis. \ A blue or livid 

Cyanopathy. j coloring of the 
skin attendant upon certain dis¬ 
eases. 

Cyanogen. A compound acidi¬ 
fying and basifying principle, com¬ 
posed of one equivalent of nitrogen 
and one of carbon. It is a gas, 
which has an odor like that of 
crushed peach-leaves, and burns with 
a rich purple flame. 

Cyanuret. A basic compound 
of cyanogen and some other element 
or compound. 

Cyanuret of Ethyl. (See AEther 
Hydyocyanicus .) 

Cy^anuret of Gold. (See Cyan- 
ideof Gold.) 

Cyanuret of Mercury. (See 
Bicyanide of Mercury.) 
f Cyanuret of Potassium. (See 
Cyanide of Potassium.) 

Cyanuret of Silver. (See Ar- 
genti Cyanidum.) 


Cyanuric Acid. A ervstalliz- 

•/ 

able acid obtained by decomposing 
urea by heat. 

Cyathus. (L.) A wine-glass. 

Cycliscus. A lozenge. 

Cyema. The ovum. 

Cyicoes. Pertaining to the dog. 

Cymene. A constituent of coal 
tar. 

Cymol. A product of the oxida¬ 
tion of oil of cumin. 

Cynanche. A kind of angina. 

Cynanhicus. A remedy for 
quinsy. 

Cynolyssa. Hydrophobia. 

Cynophoria . Pregnancy. 

Cynorexia. Canine appetite. 

Cyphosis. Abnormal curvature 
of the spine. 

Cyprian Turpentine . The tur¬ 
pentine of the ancients; an opaque, 
greenish-yellow thick substance with 
the odor of fennel. 

Cyst. A bladder or sac. 

Cysteolithos. Stone in the 
bladder. 

Cystirrfiagia . Hemorrhage from 
the bladder. 

Cystirrhcea. Catarrh of the 
bladder. 

Cystitis. Inflammation of the 
bladder. 

Cystoplasty. Cure of fistulous 
openings in the bladder by adhe¬ 
sions . 

Ci r STOPTOSis. Relaxation of the 
internal membrane of the bladder. 

Ci r STOSPASTic . Spasm of the blad¬ 
der. 

Cystotomia. Cutting into the 
bladder. 

Cystoplegia. Paralysis of the 
bladder. 

CY r ToBLAST . A cell-germ. 

D. 

Dacryoma. (G.) Weeping from 
the eyes, or a flow of tears. 

Dammar. A resin extracted from 
an East India tree allied to the pine. 









LEXICON. 


403 


D autos. The second layer or tu¬ 
nic of the scrotum whose contraction 
depends upon its muscular fibers. 

Dartre. (F.) A general name 
given to all eruptions of the skin. 

Datura Stramonium. “James¬ 
town weedy" or stramonium. (See 
Poisons.) 

Daturia. An alkaloid of Datura 
stramonium. 

Decalitre, or Decaliter. A 
French measure containing 10 litres, 
or about 2 gallons. 

Decant. To pour off gently a 
clear fluid so as not to disturb the 
sediment below. 

Decantation. The act of pour¬ 
ing off as above. 

Decarbonate. To deprive a car¬ 
bonate of its carbonic acid. 

Decidua. A porous membrane 
formed inside of the womb at the 
time of conception. 

Deciduous. Falling off early. 

Decigramme. A French weight 
of one-tenth of a gramme, or about 
1^ grains. 

Decocta. (L.) Decoctions. 

Decoction. The act of boiling, 
or the thing prepared by boiling. 

Decollation. Decapitation. 

Decolorize. To bleach, or de¬ 
prive of color. 

Decompose. To separate into 
constituent or simpler parts. 

Decomposition. A breaking up 
or dissolution of chemical affinity, 
hence frequently used for putrefac¬ 
tion. 

Decorticate. To strip off the 
bark, or outer covering. 

Decrepitation. A crackling- 
sound produced by roasting with a 
strong heat such substances as com¬ 
mon salt. 

Decubitus. A lying down, or re¬ 
clining. 

Decumbent. Lying down, or re¬ 
clining. 

Decussation. A crossing, like 
an X, usually applied to nerve 
fibers. 


Defecate. To purify or refine in 
chemistry. 

Defecation. Outside of chemi¬ 
cal use, usually applied to the act of 
emptying the bowels of feces. 

Defixus. Impotent. 

Deflagrate. To burn with a 
sudden, bright flame. 

Defloration. To deflower, or 
deprive a maiden of her virginity. 

Deformation. (L.) A deformity. 

Deglutition. The act of swal¬ 
lowing. 

Degmus. A gnawing pain. 

Dehiscent. Gaping, applied to 
plants. 

Dejections. Beside the ordinary 
use of this word it is applied to the 
stools, or motions of the bowels. 

Delible. Able to be blotted out 
or destroyed. 

Deligation. The application of 
a ligature or bandage. 

Deliquate. I To gradually melt 

Deliquesce. j by the absorption 
of moisture from the atmosphere. 

Deliquescent. Thus melting, 
or spontaneously becoming liquid. 

Deliquium. (L.) Syncope, or 
faintness. 

Delirium. Incoherent talk with 
more or less persistent derangement 
of mind. 

Delirium Tremens. (L.) “Trem¬ 
bling delirium,” a name given on 
account of its prominence as a symp¬ 
tom to alcoholic mania (Mania a 
potu). 

Delphinia. An alkaloid obtained 
from the plant larkspur. 

Deltoid. Triangular; name given 
to a muscle of the shoulder. 

Dementi .4. Idiocy. 

Demi. (F.) Half. 

Demonomania. A variety of 
monomania in which the victim is 
tormented by the idea of being pos¬ 
sessed by a demon. 

Demulcent. Softening, or sooth¬ 
ing, and hence applied to medicines 
designed to lessen irritation of any 
kind. 





404 


LEXICON. 


Denarcotize. To deprive of 
narcotic properties as denarcotized 
laudanum. 

Dengue. (Sp.) An infectious 
fever, generally seen in warm coun¬ 
tries. 

Density. In Physics the pro¬ 
portion of quantity of matter to its 
hulk, or volume. 

Dentagra. (L.) Toothache. 

Dental. Pertaining to the teeth. 

Dentatus. The second cervical 
vertebra. 

Dentifrice. A tooth-wash. 

Dentine. The ivory of the teeth. 

Dentition. The phenomena of 
the cutting and development of the 
teeth. 

Dentoidous. Like a tooth. 

Denudation. Removal of natural 
covering. 

Deobstruent. Removing ob¬ 
structions. 

Deodorized. Deprived of its 
odor. 

Deoxidate. To deprive of oxy¬ 
gen. 

Depillegmation. The process 
of removing water from spirits or 
acids, by evaporation or distillation. 

Depilatory. Any substance used 
to remove superfluous hair. 

Depletion. Diminution of the 
quantity of fluid in a living body. 

Deplumation. Falling oi? of the 
eye-lashes. 

Depression. A pressing down 
of the surface. 

Depressor. A muscle which 
presses down the part on which it 
acts. 

Depurating. Purifying. 

Derangement. Functional dis¬ 
turbance of the organs. 

De Rasiere. One of the most 
noted of the earlier embalmers. 

Derivative. Revulsive, or coun¬ 
ter-irritant. 

Dermoid. Resembling, or belong¬ 
ing to the skin. 

Desiccant. A medicine that 
dries, or deprives of moisture. 


Desiccation. Drying. (See Putre¬ 
faction.) 

Desma A bandage, or liga¬ 
ment. 

Desmobacteria. Straight, cylin¬ 
drical cells, usually much longer 
than wide, usually united in chains. 

Desmoid. Resembling a ligament. 

Despumate. To froth, or foam. 

Despumation. Clarification of a 
liquid by the removal of its foam. 

Desquamation. Scaling, or ex¬ 
foliation as of the skin. 

Desudatio. (L.) Profuse sweat¬ 
ing- 

Desulphurate. To deprive of 
sulphur. 

Determination. Excessive flow 
of blood to any part or organ. 

Detersive. Having cleansing 
power. 

Detonation. A sudden explo¬ 
sion, or report made by the union of 
combustible bodies. 

Detritus. (L.) Fragments, or de¬ 
bris. 

Detrusor UrinyE. The mus¬ 
cles of the bladder which expel from 
it the urine. 

Deuto. A prefix signifying two, 
as in the obsolete word deuto-hydro- 
guret, for which bi-hydride is now 
generally used. 

Deutoxide. Is a binoxide, or one 
containing two atoms of oxygen. 

Devaporation. The change of 
water into vapor. 

Dextral. Right handed. 

Dextrin. Soluble starch, or 
British gum produced by heating- 
starch to about 150° C. 

Dextro-Tartaric Acid. Tar¬ 
taric acid which has the power of 
turning to the right the plane of 
polarization of polarized light. 

Di. Prefix signifying two or twice. 

Dia. Prefix signifying through. 

Diabetes. A disease of the kid¬ 
neys, characterized by sugar in the 
urine. 

Diacausis. Excessive heat. 

Diacodium. Syrup of poppies. 




LEXICON. 


405 


Diagnosis. The determining and 
distinguishing of disease. 

Diagnostic. Characteristic of a 
disease. 

Dialuric Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained by decomposing alloxanthin. 

Dialysis. A method of separating 
mixed substances based upon the dif¬ 
ference in diffusibility between cer¬ 
tain liquids. 

Dialyzed Ferric Oxide. A prep¬ 
aration of hydrated iron, used as an 
antidote for arsenic. 

Diamond. The hardest of known 
bodies, consisting of pure carbon 
crystallized in a regular octahe¬ 
dron. 

Diammonic Carbonate. A com¬ 
pound prepared by macerating am¬ 
monium carbonate in liquor ammo¬ 
nia. 

Diapasm. A powder or perfume. 

Diaphanous. That can be seen 
through. 

Diaphoresis. Extreme perspi¬ 
ration. 

Diaphoretic. A medicine in¬ 
ducing perspiration. 

Diaphragm. The great muscle 
separating the chest from the abdo¬ 
men. 

Diaphragmatic. Pertaining to 
the diaphragm. 

Diaphragmitis. Inflammation of 
the diaphragm. 

Diaphthora. (G.) Corruption. 

Diapyema. Suppuration. 

Diarrhcea. A disease character¬ 
ized by fluidity of the alvine dis¬ 
charges. 

Diarthrosis. A movable articu¬ 
lation. 

Diastase. A nitrogenous sub¬ 
stance produced in malt, tending to 
hasten the formation of sugar. 

Diastasis. Extension of a broken 

limb. 

Diathesis. Morbid habit. 

Diazobenzole. An explosive 
compound prepared from hydro¬ 
chlorate of anilin, muriatic acid and 
nitrate of soda. 


Dichastasis. A spontaneous sub¬ 
division. 

Dichloracetic Acid. An acid 
formed by treating acetic acid with 
chlorine. 

Dichlorphenol. A compound 
formed by passing chlorine gas 
through phenol. 

Dichotomous. Dividing into two 
branches. 

Dichroism. The phenomenon 
presented by certain crystals which 
appear of different colors when 
viewed from different directions. 

Dicrotic. Double pulsation. 

Didymium. A rare metal. 

Dies. (L.) A day. 

Diet. Food. 

Dietetics. Relating to the food. 

Diffusate. Water impregnated 
with crystalloid matter. 

Diffuse. Spreading. 

Diffusible. Having the prop¬ 
erty of spreading. 

Digastric. Two bellied. 

Digest. To convert food into 
blood; to soften and prepare by 
heat. 

Digester. A vessel contrived to 
increase the solvent power of water. 

Digestion. Conversion of food 
into blood. The action of liquids 
upon medicines. 

Digestive. Aiding digestion. 

Digital. Pertaining to the 
fingers. 

Digitus. (L.) A finger. 

Digitus Pedis. A toe. 

Dilatation. A widening or ex¬ 
panding. 

Dilate. To make wider. 

Dilator. Name of certain mus¬ 
cles. 

Diluent. That which weakens, 
thins, or makes more liquid. 

Dilute. To make weaker by the 
addition of fluid. 

Dimorphous. Having crystals of 
two different forms. 

Dinus. Giddiness; vertigo. 

Diploe. Spongy tissue separating 
the two tables of the skull. 




400 


LEXICON. 


Diplopia. Double vision. 

Dippel’s Animal Oil. An oil 
obtained in distilling bones. 

Dipsomania. A violent desire 
for intoxicating liquors. 

Dipsosis. Excessive thirst. 

Dirigent. Directing. 

Discolor. To tinge or stain. 

Discrete. Separated. 

Discussion. Dispersion. 

Discutient. A remedy to dis¬ 
perse a tumor, etc. 

Disease. A morbid state; op¬ 
posed health. 

Disengage. To free; to liber¬ 
ate. 

Disinfectant. Neutralizing con¬ 
tagious effluvia. 

Disinfecting Fluids. (See Se¬ 
lected Formulas.) 

Disintegration. The separation 
of the integral parts of a substance. 

Dislocation. A putting out of 
joint. 

Disorganization. Destruction 
of an organ by disease. 

Disox id ate. To free from oxy¬ 
gen and thereby change from the 
state of an oxide. 

Dispensary. A place for dis¬ 
tributing medicines. A charitable 
medical institution. 

Dispensatory. A book treating 
of medicines and their prepara¬ 
tion. 

Dissection. Separating with the 
knife for anatomical study. 

Dissolution. Death; the act of 
dissolving or liquefying. 

Dissolve. To change from a 
solid to a liquid state. 

Distal. In the direction of the 
extremity. 

Distension. Dilatation. 

Distill. To convert into vapor 
by heat; and condense that vapor by 
cold. 

Distillate. The product of dis¬ 
tillation. 

Distillation. Volatilizing by 
heat, and subsequent condensation. 

Distoma. Having two mouths. 


Distortion. A twisting to one 
side. 

Disulphate. A sulphate con¬ 
taining two equivalents of sulphuric 
acid. 

Disulphuret. A sulphuret hav¬ 
ing two equivalents of sulphur to one 
of a base. 

Dithionate of Soda. Idwposul- 
phite of Soda. 

Diuresis. An abundant flow of 
urine. 

Diuretic. A medicine increas¬ 
ing the secretion of urine. 

Diverticulum. (L.) A blind tube 
branching from a longer tube. 

Dogmatics. An ancient school 
of physicians. 

Dolichos Pruriens. (L.) Cow- 
itch, a plant. 

Dolor. (L.) Pain; suffering. 

Dolorous. Painful. 

Donovan’s Solution. A solu¬ 
tion of iodide of arsenic and iodide 
of mercury, used in cutaneous affec¬ 
tions. 

Dorsal. Pertaining or belong¬ 
ing to the back. 

Dorso-cervical. Pertaining to 
the back of the neck. 

D o rsum . (L.) The back. 

Dose. The quantity of medicine 
to be taken at one time. 

Dothen. A boil. 

Double Aquafortis. Nitric 
acid of one-half concentrated 
strength, specific gravity, 1.36. 

Douche. A column of liquid 
directed upon some part of the 
body. 

Drachm. Sixty grains, or the 
eighth part of an ounce. 

Dragon’s Blood . ( Sanguis Dra- 
conis.) A resinous substance ob¬ 
tained from several species of cala¬ 
mus growing in the Fast Indies. 

Drastic. An energetic purga¬ 
tive . 

Draught. Amount of liquid 
swallowed at a dose. 

Dried Sulphate of Iron. (See 
Ferri Sulphas Exsiccata.) 




LEXICON. 


407 


Drops. A drop of liquid is gen¬ 
erally considered equal to a minim 
or the sixtieth part of a drachm; the 
number of drops varies much accord¬ 
ing to the nature of the liquid. 

Dropsy. A morbid accumulation 
of water into any of the cavities of 
the body. 

Drosometer. An instrument for 
measuring the amount of dew. 

Drugs. Original materials from 
which medicines are prepared. 

Drupa. (L.) A fruit containing 
a stone, as the peach. 

Dry Cupping. Cupping without 
scarification. 

Drying Oil. Oil deprived of its 
unctuous quality. 

Duct. ) A canal in the body for 

Ductus, j conveying fluids. 

Ductus ad Nasum. (L.) A ca¬ 
nal from the lachrymal sac to the 
nose. 

Ductus Pancreaticus. (L.) A 
canal leading from the pancreas to 
the duodenum. 

Dulce. (L.) Sweet. 

Dulcification. Making sweet. 

DuLcified Spirit. A compound 
of mineral acids with alcohol. 

Duodenitis. Inflammation of 
the duodenum. 

Duodenum. First jiortion of the 
small intestine. 

Duplicate. Doubled. 

Duplicature. Doubling back of 
a membrane upon itself. 

Dura Mater. (L.) The outer 
membrane of the brain. 

Duramen. The heart of a tree. 

Dust. To sprinkle with a pow¬ 
der. 

Dynamic. Possessing force; vital. 

Dynamis. Power or facultv. 

•V 

Dys. A prefix meaning difficult. 

Dyscophosis. Hardness of hear¬ 
ing. 

Dysentery. Inflammation of 
the mucous membrane of the lower 
intestines. 

Dyslysin. (See Chemistry of the 
Human Body.) 

J / 


Dysmenorrhea. Painful men¬ 
struation. 

Dysopia. Impaired sight. 

Dysopmia. Weakened sense of 
smell. 

Dyspepsia. Difficulty of diges¬ 
tion. 

Dyspnea. Difficult breathing. 

Dysthetica. A bad state of 
body. 

Dystochia. Difficult labor. 

Dysuria. Painful urination. 

E. 

Earth. By the alchemists used 
to express one of the supposed four 
elements. Later defined as any 
tastelesss, odorless, unimflammable, 
and infusible body, and in modern 
chemistry restricted to oxides of ten 
metals, T)ut five of which, alumina 
glucina, yttria, zircona and thoriua 
fulfill the definitions as the others, 
lime, baryta, strontia, etc., are 
strongly alkaline. 

Eau. (F.) Water. (kSee Eau 
de Javelle, Antiseptics.) 

Eau de Cologne. (F.) Cologne 
water. 

Eau de Luce. (F.) A strong so¬ 
lution of ammonia scented with oil 
of amber and mastic. 

Eau de Vie. (F.) Brandy. 

Ebriety. Giddiness and drunk¬ 
enness. 

Ebullition. Boiling. 

Eburnation. *The state of being 
hard like ivory. 

Ecbolic. Inducing abortion or 
facilitating labor. 

Ecchymoma. A soft blue swell¬ 
ing after a bruise. 

Ecchymosis. (PI. ses.) kSame 
as ecchymoma. 

Eccyesis. Extra uterine preg¬ 

nancy. 

Eclampsia. Convulsions of in¬ 
fancy or child bed. 

Eclectic. Claiming to choose 

from all and to be confined to no 





408 


LEXICON. 


single system either in philosophy or 
medicine. 

Economy. Literally “household 
order ” and hence the term animal 
economy is used to denote the sum 
total of the parts which constitute 
a living body. 

Ecphlysic. A vesicular erup¬ 
tion. 

Ecphronia. Melancholia, insani- 

ty- 

Ecphyas, or Ecphyma. An ex¬ 
crescence on the skin. 

Ecpyesis. A general name for 
pustular eruptions. 

Ecraseur. (F.) A steel chain 
gradually tighted by a screw, and 
used for minor operations. 

Ecsarcoma. A fleshy excre¬ 
scence . 

Ecstasy. Suspension of sensi¬ 
bility and voluntary motion, usually 
with the absorption of the mind 
upon a single idea. Trance. 

Ecthyma. An eruption of pus¬ 
tules without fever. 

Ectopia. Displacement, as ec¬ 
topia cordis or misplacement of the 
heart. 

Ectozoon. (PI. zoa.) Parasitic 
animals which infest the surface of 
the body. 

Ectropion. Eversion of the 
eyelid. 

Eczema. Literally a “boiling- 
up,^ applied to a very common ves- 
cular eruption which oozes fluid and 
forms a yellowish scab. 

Eczematous. .Belonging to, or 
like eczema. 

Efferent. Carrying off or away, 
applied to vessels or nerves passing 
away from an organ. (See Vasa 
efferentia .) 

Effervescence. A boiling over, 
usually applied to the rapid escape of 
a gas from a liquid. 

Effete. Past bearing, worn out. 

Efflorescence. Flowering; ap¬ 
plied in chemistry to a formation of 
powder upon the surface of crystals 
from the escape of their water of 


crystallization ; also bright redness 
of the skin. 

Effluvium. (PI. via.) Sickly 
exhalation arising from marshy 
ground, and also applied to morbific 
odors from any body. 

Effusion. The escape of any 
fluid from its natural vessel, a pour¬ 
ing out. 

Egesta. The natural excretions 
of the body. 

Egg. A mass formed in the 
ovary and containing the germ of 
animal life together with liquids 
necessary to its nutrition for a cer¬ 
tain length of time. 

Egg Nog. A drink made from 
spirits and sugar combined with the 
yolks of eggs beaten with sugar and 
the whites of eggs. 

Eglantine. (Sweet Brier.) A 
species of rose upon which a kind of 
insect produces the fungus rosarum . 

Egyptian Opium. An opium 
adulterated with gum arabic. 

Elaidic Acid. An acid formed 
by the saponification of elaidin with 
the alkalies. 

Elaidin. A fatty matter resem¬ 
bling stearin. (See Chemistry of 
the Human Body.) 

Elain. The liquid portion of 
animal fat. 

Elasticin. (See Chemistry of 
the Human Body.) 

Elcosis. Ulceration. 

Elective. Selecting certain 
kinds of substances in combination. 

Electric. Pertaining to elec¬ 
tricity. 

Electric Calamine. (See Cal¬ 
amine.) 

Electricity. A form of force in 
nature produced from a disturbance 
of molecular equilibrium, and man¬ 
ifesting itself in various ways. 

Electro-Chemistry. The sci¬ 
ence which treats of the chemical 
changes produced by electricity. , 

Electrode. A pole of a galvanic 
battery. 

Electrolysis. Decomposition 



LEXICON. 


409 


of a compound by an electric cur¬ 
rent. 

Electrolyte. A compound sub¬ 
ject to electrolysis. 

Electrometer. An instrument 
to measure electricity. 

Electro-Puncture. Plunging 
needles which are connected with a 
galvanic battery into the soft parts 
of the body. 

Element. One of the simple con¬ 
stituents of any form of matter. 

Elementary. Containing but 
one element. 

Elemi. A fragrant resin. 

Eleoptene. Fluid principles of 
volatile oils jiartially congealed. 

Elephantiasis. A disease char¬ 
acterized by great swelling of the 
legs. 

Elevator. That which lifts up; 
a name given to certain muscles. 

Eliquation. Separating the parts 
of a compound by applying sufficient 
heat to fuse one of the components. 

Elixation. Boiling. 

Elutriate. To purify by wash¬ 
ing with water and decanting the 
water containing impurities. 

Embalming. (From em and 
bolsamum , “balsam.”) The art of 
pieparing dead bodies, chiefly by 
the use of chemicals, in order to 
preserve them from putrefaction and 
the attacks of insects. By some it 
is thought to have originated from 
burying bodies in sand impregnated 
with natron and other salts which 
preserved the bodies, and suggested 
imitation of the process by artificial 
methods. 

Embole. The process of reducing 
a dislocation. 

Embonpoint. (F.) Fullness of 
the healthy body. 

Embrocation. A liniment to be 
rubbed upon the affected part. 

Embryo. The fetus before the 
fifth month. 

Embryology. Description of the 
fetus. 

Emesis. Vomiting. 


Emetic. Producing vomiting. 

Emeto-Cathartic. A medicine 
causing vomiting and purging. 

Emissartum. A canal for fluids. 

Emission. The act by which 
matter is thrown from the body. 

Emollient. Softening; an ex¬ 
ternal application designed to relax 
or soften parts which are inflamed or 
too tense. 

Empasm. A powder sprinkled 
upon a body to remove offensive 
odors. 

Emphractic. A medicine which 
closes the pores of the skin. 

Emphlysis. Vesicular eruptions. 

Emphyma. A tumor below the 
skin. 

Emphysema. A swelling produced 
by gas. 

Empiric. One who follows ex¬ 
perience alone, as distinguished from 
those who proceed according to 
recognized general principles. 

Empirical. Based upon experi¬ 
ence alone. 

Emplastrum. A plaster. 

Empyema. Collection of pus in 
the cavity of the thorax. 

Em pyesis. Suppuration. 

Empyreumatic Oils. Oils ob¬ 
tained by distillation from the de¬ 
composition of vegetable or animal 
substances. 

Emulsion. A milk-like mixture, 
containing oil and water united by 
some third medium. 

Enamel. The hard outer surface 
of the teeth. 

Enarthrosis. Ball and socket 
joints. 

Encauma. A scar left by a burn. 

Encephalic. Within the head. 

Encephalitis. Inflammation of 
the brain. 

Encysted. Inclosed in a sac. 

Endemic. Prevailing within a 
particular 7’egion. 

Endermatic. Applied to the 
skin. 

Endosmosis. Passage of liquids 
or gases through membranes. 





410 


LEXICON. 


Endothelium. A tubular sys¬ 
tem formed of a single layer of flat 
cells; the essential constituent of the 
blood-vessels. 

Enema. An injection into the 
rectum as a medicine or for nour¬ 
ishment. 

Engorgement. Accumulation of 
fluid in hollow organs. 

Ennui. (F.) Listlessness. 

Ensiform. Sword-shaped. 

Entasis. Tonic spasm. 

Enteric. Pertaining to the in¬ 
testines. 

Enteritis. Inflammation of the 
bowels. 

Enteropathia. A disease of the 
intestines. 

Entomology. Natural history 
of insects. 

Entozoa. Small parasites. 

Enuresis. Inability to retain 
urine. 

Ephemera. Lasting but a day. 

Ephialtes. Nightmare. 

Epidemic. A disease extending 
over a wide district. 

Epidermis. The otiter or scarf 
skin covering the true skin. 

Epidermic. Relating to the epi¬ 
dermis. 

Epigastric. Above the stomach. 

Epiglottis. A fibro-cartilage at 
the upper part of the larynx behind 
the tongue. 

Epilepsy. A convulsive disease 
accompanied with lividity of the 
face, foaming at the mouth, and 
stupor. 

Epiphysis. A bony process at¬ 
tached by cartilage. 

Epiploon. (See Omentum.) 

Epispastic. Blistering. 

Epithelium. The covering of 
the mucous membrane, analogous to 
the endothelium. 

Epsom Salts. (Sulphate of Mag¬ 
nesia.) A cathartic salt originally 
prepared from boiling the mineral 
waters at Epsom, England. 

Equivalence. (See page 119.) 

Erbium. A rare metal. 


Erectile Tissue. A tissue which 
is susceptible of dilatation and rig- 
iditv. 

Eremacausis. Slow combustion 
from oxygen of the air. 

Erethism. Irritation of an or¬ 
gan . 

Eroded. Worn; ragged. 

Erratic. Irregular. 

Eructation. Belching. Emis¬ 
sion of wind from the stomach. 

Eruption. Pimples upon the 
skin. 

Erysipelas. A disease character¬ 
ized by inflammation of the skin, 
fever, and tension of the part af¬ 
fected . 

Erythema. Redness. 

Escharotic. A caustic producing 
a scar. 

Esculapius. (sEsculapius .) The 
god of medicine, usually represented 
as an aged man accompanied by a 
serpent. 

Esculent. That may be eaten 
for food. 

Eso. A prefix signifying inter¬ 
nal. 

Esophagus. (See (Esophagus.) 

Essence. The principal qualities 
of a plant or drug extracted from 
superfluous matter. 

Essential. Pertaining to an es¬ 
sence . 

Essential Oil. A volatile oil, 
to which plants owe their peculiar 
odor. 

Essential Salt of Lemons. A 
name given to the quadroxalate of 
potassa. 

Etiial. A principle obtained by 
the saponification of spermaceti. 

Ether. (iEther, Sulphuric Eth¬ 
er.) A mobile, volatile, colorless 
liquid obtained from heating together 
alcohol and sulphuric acid. 

Ether, Acetic. An ether formed 
by distilling alcohol with acetic acid 
and sulphuric acid. 

Ether, Hydriodic. An ether 
prepared from alcohol, iodine and 
phosphorus. 







LEXICON - . 


411 


Ether, Hydrocyanic. An ether 
prepared from sulphovinate of baryta 
and cyanide of potassium. 

Ether, Muriatic. An ether pre¬ 
pared from muriatic acid and alcohol. 

Ether, Pure. Pure ether, hav¬ 
ing a specific gravity of 0.713. 

Ether, Sulphuric. (See Ether.) 

Etherization. The effects pro¬ 
duced by the inhalation of ether. 

Ethyl Amin. A volatile alkaloid. 

Ethmoid. Sieve-like; a bone of 
the head. 

Etiology. The science of the 
causes of disease. 

Eucalyptol. An antiseptic es¬ 
sential oil obtained from the large 
leaves of the Australian tree Euca¬ 
lyptus. 

Eustachian Tube. A canal lead¬ 
ing from the throat to the internal 
ear. 

Eutropiiic. Increasing nutrition. 

Evaporate. To pass off and dis¬ 
appear in the form of vapor. 

Eversion. A turning outward. 

Evolution. Development. 

Exacerbation. Exhibition of 
violent symptoms. 

Exaeresis. .Removing or ampu¬ 
tating a part. 

Exanguious. Bloodless. 

Exanthema. A rash, or erup¬ 
tion of the skin. 

Excipient. An inert, harmless 
substance, such as simple syrup, 
used as a vehicle for administering 
medicines. 

Excision. Cutting out. 

Excitant. Stimulant; arousing 
the vital activity. 

Excitement. Stimulation. 

Excito-motory. The true spinal 
nerves. 

Excoriation. A wounding which 
removes the skin. 

Excrement. The feces. 

Excrementitious. Of the nature 
of excrements. 

Excrescence. An abnormal 
growth upon the surface of organs 
or on the skin. 


Excretion. Anything thrown 
off. 

Excretory. Designed for trans¬ 
mitting discharges. 

Exfoliation. The separation of 
dead bone in the form of scales. 

Exhalation. The throwing off 
| of vapor. 

Exhaust. To draw off com¬ 
pletely. 

Exhilarants. Stimulants. 

Exhumation. Disinterment of 
the dead. 

Exophthalmia. Protrusion of 
the eye-ball. 

Exosmosis. That property by 
which rarer fluids pass through mem¬ 
branes into denser liquids. 

Exotic. Belonging to a foreign 
country. 

Expectorant. A medicine pro¬ 
moting the discharge of mucus from 
the air passages. 

Expiration. The act of expel¬ 
ling the air from the lungs. 

Exploration. Probing a wound 
or examing the body by the various 
instruments of precision. 

Explosive. Capable of detonat¬ 
ing, or exploding. 

Expressed Oils. Oils which are 
extracted by means of pressure. 

Expulsive. Pressing, or driving 
out. 

Exsanguinated. Deprived of 
blood. 

Exsiccation. A thorough dry¬ 
ing. 

Exstrophy. The eversion or 
placing on the surface of the body 
of an organ, as the bladder. 

Extension. Stretching out ; hence 
applied to the force used in reducing 
and keeping in a place a fracture or 
dislocation. 

Extensors. Muscles whose func¬ 
tion is to extend the limbs, etc. 

Extirpation. The complete re¬ 
moval of any part of the body. 

Extraction. Drawing out; hence 
used in chemistry to denote the re¬ 
moval of any part of a compound 






412 


LEXICON. 


by means of the proper solvent, as 
extraction by water, alcohol, ether, 
etc. 

Extract. Is that which is thus 
drawn out. 

Extractive Matter. A name 
formerly given to a mixture of prox¬ 
imate principles, which have the 
property of becoming gummy dur¬ 
ing the evaporation of fluids in 
which they are dissolved. 

Extraneous. Foreign to the body. 

Extra-uterine. Outside of the 
uterus. (See Abdominal Pregnan- 

cy-) 

Extravasation. The effusion 
of blood beneath the skin, or out¬ 
side of its natural channels. 

Extremities. The ends; hence 
the limbs are frequently so called. 

Extrorsal. Turned outward. 

Exudation. The passage of any 
liquid through a membrane, usually 
applied to the passage of the liquor 
sanguinis through the walls of the 
blood vessels. 

Exuviae. (L.) Literally shells, 
but also applied to any effete mat¬ 
ter. 

Eye-ball. The globe of the eye. 

Eye-teeth. The upper canines, 
so called because their roots extend 
upwards toward the eyes. 

F 

F. Symbol for Fluorine ; also for 
Fahrenheit, which see. 

Faba. (L.) A bean. 

Facette. (F.) A small smooth 
surface. 

Facial. Belonging to the face. 

Factivia. Earliest name given 
to bacteria. 

Fa:ces. (L.) Dregs. (See 
Feces.) 

Fahrenheit’s Thermometer. 
The one in ordinary use in the Uni¬ 
ted States. Tne freezing point in 
this scale is placed at 32°, and the 
boiling point for water at 212°. Zero 


Fahrenheit, therefore is 32° below 
freezing instead of indicating the 
freezing point as it does on the cen¬ 
tigrade thermometer. 

Falciform. Scythe - shaped, so 
named from Latin word falx, a 
scythe. 

Fallopian Tubes. Those pass¬ 
ing from the womb to the ovaries. 

Fallopius. One of the most fa¬ 
mous of earlier anatomists, after 
whom the Fallopian tubes are 
named. 

Farcy. A disease of the lym¬ 
phatics of the skin of the horse. 

Farina. Fine flour made from 
winter wheat. 

Farinaceous. Floury, or like 
farina. 

Fascia. (L.) I literally a band¬ 
age, hence applied to certain of the 
ligaments and sheaths of the body. 
As fascia lata, transversalts, etc. 

Fascicular. In bundles/or fibers. 

Fauces. (L.) The pharynx and 
back part of the mouth. 

Favosus. (L.) Like a honey¬ 
comb. 

Favus. A skin disease with 
honey comb like crusts. 

Fe. Symbol for iron. (See Chem¬ 
istry. 

Febricula. (L.) A slight or 
transient fever. 

Febrifuge. A medicine to drive 
away fever. 

Fecal. Belonging to the feces, 
or excrements. 

Feces. (Fceces.) The evacua¬ 
tions of the bowels. 

Fecula. The grounds or sedi¬ 
ment of a liquid, and also starch 
and starch-like bodies, insoluble in 
cold water, but soluble in hot, with 
which it forms a glutinous solution. 

Fecundation. The act of im¬ 
pregnation, or rendering fruitful. 

Fee Bovinum. (L.) Oxgall. 

Fellinic. Belonging to bile, as 
fellinic acid, which is prepared from 
bilin by the action of muriatic acid. 

Felon. An inflammation of the 




LEXICON. 


413 


finger where the effusion is below 
the periosteum. 

Femoral. Belonging to the 
thigh, as the femoral artery. (Plate 
III.) 

Femur. The thigh-bone. 

Fenestra. (L.) A window; name 
given to openings in the internal ear. 

Fenestrated. Having windows 
or openings. 

Ferment. That which produces 
fermentation, for varieties of which, 
and causes, see Section IV. 

Fermentum. (L.) Yeast. 

Ferrated. Containing iron. 

Ferric Acid. According to the 
former nomenclature prepared by 
passing chlorine through a concen¬ 
trated solution of potash holding 
hydrated iron in suspension. 

Ferro. xV prefix signifying iron 
from the Latin name for the same 
(ferrum). 

Ferrum. (L.) Iron. Casually 
found in the genitive case with the 
ending “ i,” e. g.: 

Ferri Arsenias. (Arseniate of 
iron). 

Ferri Chloridium. (Chloride of 
iron.) 

Ferri Ferrocyanidum. (Prus¬ 
sian Blue.) 

Ferri Rubigo. (Iron rust.) 

Ferri Sulphas. (Ferrous sul¬ 
phate), etc., etc., etc. 

Fery t or. Violent heat. 

Fetid. Having an offensive odor. 

Fever. A systemic disease, char¬ 
acterized by disturbance of the sym¬ 
pathetic nervous system, increased 
heat, rapid pulse etc. 

Fiat. (L.) Let there be made. 

Fiber or Fibre. Delicate fila¬ 
ments, or thread-like portions into 
which various animal and vegetable 
tissue can be broken up. 

Fibril . A small filament or fiber. 

Fibrin. A white, stringy mate¬ 
rial, obtained from coagulated blood. 

Fibrous. Composed of fibers. 

Fibula. (L.) The smaller bone 
of the lower leg. 


Fibular. Releating to the fibula. 

Ficus. (L.) The fig. 

Filament. A small fiber. 

Filiform. Thread-like. 

Fillet. A small band. 

Film. A thin skin or membrane¬ 
ous covering. 

Filter. A strainer of some por¬ 
ous material, such as unsized paper, 
sand or charcoal, through which a 
liquid is passed for clarification. 


Filtrate. Fluid which has been 
clarified by passing through a filter. 

Filtration. Passing through a 
filter. 

Filum. (L.) A thread. 

Fimbria. (L.) A fringe. 

Fir. (Pinns Abies.) A tree 

which yields tar and turpentine. 

Fire Damp. Light carburetted 
hydrogen; an explosive gas encoun¬ 
tered in mines. 

Fish Clue. (See Isinglass.) 

Fissure. ( Fissura.) A narrow 
crack in a bone. 

Fisus. (L.) Cloven. 

Fistula. A sinuous ulcer in the 
form of a narrow canal. 

Fixed Bodies. Those which are 
vaporized with great difficulty. 

Fixed Oils. Oils which are but 
slightly vaporized by the action of 
heat. 

Flaccid. Soft and weak; re¬ 
laxed. 

Flagellum. (L.) The motive, cil¬ 
iary organ of certain bacteria, by 
which they whip themselves for¬ 
ward . 

Flake. A loose scale-like mass. 

Flask. A thin, narrow-necked 
vessel for fluids. 

Flatulence. Wind in the stom¬ 
ach and bowels. 

Flavescent. 

.Flavus. (L.) 


Yellowish. 
Yellow. 


Flax. (Linum Usitatissimum ,) 
A common annual plant from whose 
seeds is obtained linseed oil. 

Flaxseed Meal. (Linseed Meal.) 
Ground flaxseed. 

Flexion. Bending. 




414 


LEXICON. 


Flexor. That which bends; | 
name applied to certain muscles of i 
the joints. 

Flint Glass. A clear, refractive 
glass which contains oxide of lead. 

Floccilation. Picking at the 
bed-clothes. 

Flocculent. Flaky. 

Flooding. Hemorrhage of the 
uterus. 

Floral. Belonging to flowers. 

Flouk of Meat. A preparation 
of meat dried so as to lose its water 
and ground to fine powder. 

Flowers. A name given to cer¬ 
tain sublimated products as the 
flowers of sulphur, zinc, etc. 

Fluctuation. The undulation 
of a fluid within the body. 

Fluid. A body whose particles 
easily move about and which is ca¬ 
pable of flowing. Applied both to 
liquids and gases. 

Fluoboric Acid. An acid con¬ 
sisting of fluorine and boron. 

Fluomanganio Acid. An acid 
obtained from hydrofluoric acid and 
perchloride of manganese. 

Fluophosphate. A compound 
containing fluoric and phosphoric 
acids united with some base. 

Fluor. (L.) A flow. 

Fluoric. Obtained from fluor¬ 
spar. 

Fluoride. A compound of fluo¬ 
rine with a base. 

Fluoride of Ammonium. A com¬ 
pound by which glass can be etched. 

Fluoride of Sodium. A com¬ 
pound obtained from fluoride of cal¬ 
cium, carbonate of lime, sulphate of 
soda and carbon. 

Fluorine. An element occur¬ 
ring in fluorspar and in minute 
quantities in animal substances, 
which has never been isolated. Sym¬ 
bol F. 

Fluor Spar. (Calcium Fluor¬ 
ide.) A mineral occurring in cubic 
crystals, found in Derbyshire, Eng¬ 
land, and used as a flux in the re¬ 
duction of metals. Formula, CaF 2 . 


Fluosiligate. A compound of 
fluosilicic acid with a base. 

Fluosiligic Acid. An acid com¬ 
posed of fluorine and silicon. 

Flux. A flow; a substance in¬ 
troduced during the reduction of 
metallic compounds to assist in the 
removal of foreign matter. 

Flux, Deflagrating. A mix¬ 
ture of charcoal and nitre, used for 
substances insoluble in water. 

Fceniculum. Fennel; an aro¬ 
matic plant. 

Fcetal. Pertaining to the foetus. 

Fcetus. (L.) A young animal be¬ 
fore birth. 

Foliation. Forming into leaves, 

- or presenting a leaf-like appearance. 

Folium. (L.) A leaf. 

Follicle. A small capsule or 
opening. 

Fomentation. The application 
of warm lotions or medicated liq¬ 
uids. 

Fomites. (L.) Producers of con¬ 
tagious diseases. 

Fontanel. Apertures in the 
skulls of infants where the sutures 
join. 

Foramen. (L.) A small open¬ 
ing. 

Forceps. Pincers. 

Forearm. The arm between the 
elbow and wrist, containing the 
radius and ulna. 

Forensic. Pertaining to courts 
of law, or criminal procedure. 

Formica. (L.) An ant. 

Formic Acid. (See page 2G0) 

Formula. An expression, by 
letters and figures, of the composi¬ 
tion of a substance. 

Fossa. (L.) A depression or 
shallow groove. 

Fossil. Dug from the earth. 

Fowler’s Solution. A prepa¬ 
ration of arsenious acid and bicarbo¬ 
nate of potassa to which is added 
spirit of lavender. It has the general 
action of arsenic. 

Fracture. A breaking. 

Frangipanni. A perfume ob- 








LEXICON. 


415 


tained from the flower of a West 
Indian tree. 

Frankincense. (See Olibanum.) 
The names is applied in modern 
times to the concrete fragrant juice 
of the Thus Americanum, etc. 

Fraxin. A principle obtained 
from the bark of the ash tree, Frax- 
inus excelsior. 

Freezing Mixture. A com¬ 
pound for producing intense cold, 
such as a mixture of ice and salt. 

Freezing Point of Water. 
That degree upon the scale of the 
thermometer at which water begins 
to freeze. Upon the ordinary scale 
this is at 32 degrees; upon the Cen¬ 
tigrade and Reaumur thermometers 
at 0 degrees. 

Fremitus. (L.) A shuddering 
or trembling. 

French Chalk. A variety of 
indurated talc, chiefly used for 
marking cloth. 

French Vinegar. (Wine Vin¬ 
egar.) A vinegar prepared from 
white or red wine which is much 
stronger than malt vinegar. 

French White. Pulverized 
chalk. 

Friable. Easily reducible to 
powder; crumbling. 

Friction. The rubbing of one 
substance against another producing 
heat. 

Frigidity. Coldness. 

Frigorific. Producing cold. 

Frig us. (L.) Cold. 

Frons. (L.) The forehead. 

Frontal. Pertaining to the fore¬ 
head. 

Fructification. The forming 
or bearing of fruit. 

Fructose. An uncrystallizable 
sugar occurring already formed in 
honey and certain fruits. 

Fructus. (L.) Fruit. 

Frumentum. (L.) Grain. 

Fucus. A seaweed yielding io¬ 
dine. 

Fugacious. Fleeting; of short 
duration. 


Fuliginous. Sooty. 

Fuller’s Earth. A friable clay, 
unctous to the touch, of various 
colors. 

Fulminating. Detonating or ex¬ 
ploding with a loud report. 

Fumaiiic Acid. An acid obtained 
from certain species of fungi. 

Fumigating Pastiles. Small 
cones made of fragrant materials 
which on being burned yield an 
agreeable odor in a sick room. 

Fumigation. Exposing to smoke 
to free from contagion. 

Fuming. Giving off vapor when 
exposed to the air. 

Fuming Sulphuric Acid. A 
kind of sulphuric acid obtained from 
distillation of green vitriol or fer¬ 
rous sulphate. 

Function. The action of an 
organ or set of organs. 

Fundament. The anus. 

Fundus. (L.) The base or bot¬ 
tom. 

Funeral Urn. A vase used by 
the ancients to receive the ashes 
after cremation. 

Fungi. Plural of fungus, which 
see. 

Fungic Acid. (Fumaric Acid.) 

Fungous. Spongy, soft, and of 
sudden growth. 

Fungus. (Plural, Fungi.) A 
mushroom; a large order of crvptog- 
amous plants which grow on dead 
and decaying organic bodies and in¬ 
fest living plants. Some are useful 
for food and medicine, some vio¬ 
lently poisonous. 

Funis. (L.) The umbilical cord. 

Funiculus. A small cord. 

Furfuraceous. Bran-like. 

Furor. Violent madness. 

Fuscine. A dark colored sub¬ 
stance obtained from certain animal 
oils. 

Fuse. To melt by heat. 

Fusel Oil. An oily, poisonous 
liquid produced in the manufacture 
of potato oil. (See Amyl Alco¬ 
hol.) 




410 


LEXICON. 


Fusible. Capable of liquification 
by heat. 

Fusion. The act of making liq¬ 
uid by applying heat. 

Fustic. A yellow dye-stuff. 

Gr. 

G. Symbol for glucinum. 

Gabbera. A name given to mum¬ 
mies by St. Augustine. 

Gala. (G.) Milk. 

Galactic. Pertaining to milk. 

Galactometer. An instrument 
for determining the quality of milk. 

Galbanum. A gum-resin ob¬ 
tained from the Ferula galba7iifiua. 

Galen. A noted physician of 
antiquity. 

Galena. Native sulphuret of 
lead; the ore from which lead is ob¬ 
tained. 

Gall. Bile. 

Gall ate. A salt formed by the 
combination of gallic acid with some 
base. 

Gall Bladder. Receptacle for 
bile under the liver. 

Galley. A long furnace con¬ 
taining a row of retorts whose necks 
protrude through openings in the 
side. 

Gallic. Derived from gall-nuts. 

Galliic Acid Fermentation. 
A property possessed by galls of 
turning tannic acid into gallic acid. 

Gall Nuts. (Galls.) Excres¬ 
cences formed upon a kind of oak 
tree from punctures of certain in¬ 
sects. They are powerfully astrin¬ 
gent. 

Gallon. A measure of quantity, 
containing four quarts. The stand¬ 
ard U. S. gallon contains 231 cubic 
inches, the beer gallon 282 cubic 
inches. 

Galvanic. Pertaining to gal¬ 
vanism. 

Galvanism. Electricity devel¬ 
oped from chemical action and not 
from friction. 


Galvanized Iron. Iron upon 
which a coating of metallic zinc has 
been deposited. 

Galvano-Caustic. Relating to 
the employment of galvanic heat as 
a caustic. 

G-\ mboge. A cathartic gum-resin. 

Ganglion. (Plural, Ganglia.) 
An enlargement upon a nerve, re¬ 
sembling a knot. 

Gangrene. Mortification. 

Gas. An aeriform, elastic fluid 
expanding definitely by heat, and re¬ 
ducing its volume under pressure. 

Gaseous. Of the nature of gas; 
aeriform. 

Gas Liquor. The ammoniacal liq¬ 
uor condensed in the manufacture of 
coal gas, from which sal-ammonia is 
obtained. 

Gasometer. A reservoir for gas. 

Gaster. (G.) The stomach. 

Gastric. Pertaining to the stom¬ 
ach. 

Gastric Juice. The peculiar 
juice secreted by the stomach for 
digesting food. 

Gastritis. Inflammation of the 
stomach. 

Gastrotomy. Incision through 
the stomach. 

Gelatin. A colorless transparent 
substance soluble in hot water, and 
found in the skin and membranes of 
animals; animal jelly. 

Geline. A name given by Gan- 
nal to compounds formed by alu¬ 
minium salts with the albuminoids 
of the body; when submitted to the 
action of boiling water it forms gel¬ 
atin. 

Genera. (Plural of Genus.) 

Genital. Pertaining to procre¬ 
ation. 

Genu. (L.) The knee. 

Genus. (Plural, Genera.) A 
family; a group of nearly-related 

species. 

Geranium. (Crane’s Bill.) A 
species of plants. 

Geranium, Rose. A fragrant 
plant whose odor depends upon its 




LEXICON. 


417 


volatile oil which is used to adulter¬ 
ate oil of roses. 

Germ. The first principle of 
life. 

Germination. Development of 
*in embryo. 

Gestation. Pregnancy. 

Giiee. Butter clarified by boil¬ 
ing; used in the Hindoo sacred rites. 

Gin. A spirit distilled from 
grain and flavored with juniper ber¬ 
ries. 

Glacial. Having a glassy ap¬ 
pearance. 

Glacies. (L.) Ice. 

Gladius. (L.) An old name for 
the lower part of the sternum. 

Gland. An organ of secretion. 

Glandula. (L.) A small gland. 

Glandular. Resembling a 
gland. 

Glans. (L.) A gland. 

Glass. A hard, brittle, trans¬ 
parent substance, formed by fusing 
sand with fixed alkalies. The most 
important varieties are Crown, 
Bohemian, Flint and Bottle glass. 

Glass of Borax. A solid trans¬ 
parent mass obtained by fusing borax 
and then cooling it. 

Glauber’s Salt. (Sulphate of 
soda.) A substance found in many 
mineral springs, and artificially pre¬ 
pared by treating common salt with 
sulphuric acid in the presence of 
sodium carbonate. It is used in 
medicine. 

Glaucosis. Opacity of the 
vitreous humor of the eye. 

Gleet. Chronic gonorrhoea. 

Globate. Globe like. 

Globular. Spherical or nearly 
so. 

Globule. A small particle of 
matter of spherical form. 

Globulin. (See Chemistry of 
the Human Body.) 

Globus. A ball. 

Glomerate. Heaped; united 
together. 

Glonoin. (See Nitro glycerine.) 

Glossa . The tongue. 


Glossitis. Inflammation of the 
tongue. 

Glosso-Pharyngeal. Relating 
to the tongue and the pharynx. 

Glottis. The narrow opening at 
the upper part of the larynx between 
the vocal chords. 

Glucose. (Grape sugar, starch 
sugar.) A sugar less soluble than 
cane sugar, and not equally sweet?, 
which is found in starch, honey, and 
fruits. (See page 264.) 

Glucosides. Substances contain¬ 
ing glucose. 

Glucosuria. Diabetes. 

Gluteal Artery. A branch of 
the hypogastric artery. 

Gluten. (Vegetable Fibrin.) A 
yellow elastic insoluble substance, 
existing in grains and leguminous 
plants. It is sometimes called vege¬ 
table albumen. 

Glycerides. Oils having gly¬ 
cerine for their base. 

Glycerine. (Glycerin.) A sweet 
heavy liquid consisting of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. 

Glycero-Piiosphoric Acid. A 
peculiar acid obtained from brain- 
tissue. 

Glyceryl. A hypothetical rad¬ 
ical entering into the composition of 
glycerine. 

Glycina. (See Glycocoll.) 

Glychocholic Acid. (See 
Bile.) 

Glycocoll. (Glycina.) A com¬ 
plex substance resulting from the 
decomposition of glychocholic acid. 
(See Chemistry of the Human Body.) 

Glychol. A sweet liquid, solu¬ 
ble in water, and intermediate be¬ 
tween glycerine and alcohol. 

Glycholic Acid. An acid com¬ 
posed of oxygen and acetic acid. 

Goitre. A disease characterized 
by an abnormal swelling of the 
thyroid gland. 

Gonalgia. Pain in the knee.‘ 

Gonorrhoea. An infectious dis¬ 
charge from the urethra. 

Gossypium. Cotton. 




418 


LEXICON. 


Goulard's Extract. (See Lead, 
Solution of Subacetate.) 

Gout. Inflammation of the small 
joints. 

Gramme. The unit of weight in 
the French metric system. It is 
about equivalent to 15-|- grains, and 
is the weight of a cubic centimeter 
of water. 

Granular. Consisting of grains. 

Granulated . Granular. 

Granulation. The forming of 
little fleshy bodies upon ulcers and 
suppurating wounds, filling up the 
cavities and uniting the sides. 

Granules. Small grains; little 
pills. 

Granum. (L.) Grain. 

Grape Sugar. (See Glucose.) 

Graphioides. (Resembling a 
style.) A process of the temporal 
bone. 

Graphite. A modification of car¬ 
bon, having a soft consistence and 
metallic luster. 

Grass Oil. An essential oil ob¬ 
tained from scented grasses in 
India. 

Grave. (From a verb meaning 
to dig.) An excavation for burial. 

Gravel. Calculous matter formed 
in the kidneys. 

Gravimeter. An instrument for 
measuring the specific gravity of 
bodies. 

Gravity, Specific. (See Specific 
Gravity.) 

Green Vitrol. (See Ferri Sul¬ 
phas. ) 

Groats. Hulled oats. 

Guanin. A substance similar to 
uric oxide obtained from guano, or 
bird manure. 

Gun Cotton. (Pyroxylin.) A 
very explosive substance, prepared 
by soaking vegetable fiber in strong 
nitric and sulphuric acids. See also 
Collodion. 

Gustatory. Pertaining to the 
sense of taste. 

Gutta. (L.) A drop. 

Gutta Perch a. The hardened 


juice of a large tree growing in the 
vicinity of Singapore. 

Gutta Serena. A paralysis of 
the optic nerve. 

. Guttated. Sprinkled with drops. 

Gutter. (L.) The throat. 

Guttural. In or pertaining to 
the throat. 

Guttural Artery. A branch of 
the carotid. 

Gypsum. (See Calais Sulphas and 
Disinfectants.) 

H. 

H. Symbol for hydrogen. 

Habitat. The natural locality of 
a plant or animal. 

Habit. ) Constitutional pre- 

IIabitude. j disposition. 

IIaema. (G.) Blood. A prefix. 

ILemastasis. Checking the cur¬ 
rent of venous blood by dry cupping 
or ligatures. 

Hamatemesis. Vomiting of 
blood from the stomach. 

Haematic a. Diseases of the san¬ 
guineous function. 

HyEMATIN. ) A blue-black sub- 

H.ematosin. j stance having a 
metallic luster and incapable of 
crystallization, obtained from the 
blood. Insoluble in water or alcohol 
but soluble in alkaline solutions. 

IHematology. A treatise on the 
blood. 

ILematosis. Aeration of the 
blood in the lungs. 

HaEMOGLOBUlin. A conipound 
known only in connection with 
blood corpuscles. (See page 188. ) 

Haemoptysis. Coughing blood 
from the lungs. 

Haemorrhage. Any morbid dis¬ 
charge of blood. 

Haemorrhoidal. Arteries and 

veins about the anus. 

ILemoptoe. The spitting of blood. 

H.emorrhois. (G.) Hemorrhage. 

Haemorrhoids. Piles. 

Halitus. Vapor; the breath. , 






LEXICON. 


419 


Halogen. A substance which, 
by combination with a metal, forms 
a haloid salt. 

Haloid. Resembling salt. Ap¬ 
plied to binary compounds, contain¬ 
ing chlorine, iodine, and the allied 
elements. 

Hamm a. A truss for hernia. 

Hamosus. Hooked. 

Hamularia. A genus of worms. 

Hamulus. A little hook. 

Ha psis. The sense of touch. 

Hare-Lip. Congenital fissure of 
the upper lip. 

Hari-Kari. The Japanese method 
of suicide by disemboweling with the 
sword. 

Harmonia. A species of synar¬ 
throsis or immovable articulation. 

Haunch. The hip; lateral parts 
of the pelvis. 

Haustus. (L.) A draught. 

Heart. A hollow, muscular or¬ 
gan, which is the center of the circu¬ 
lating system in the higher orders of 
animals. 

Heavy Carbonate of Mag¬ 
nesia. (Magnesia Carbonas Pon- 
ilerosa.) A white granular powder 
which dissolves with effervescence in 
the dilute mineral acids. It is ob¬ 
tained by essentially the same process 
as that directed for carbonate of 
magnesia. 

Heavy Oil of Tar. A term ap¬ 
plied to the second set of oils which 
come over from the distillation of 
coal-tar. 

Hectogramme. A French meas¬ 
ure of weight, containing a hundred 
grammes, or about 3,527 ounces 
avoirdupois. 

Hectolitre. A French measure 
of capacity for liquids, containing a 
hundred litres, equal to a tenth of 
a cubic metre, nearly twenty-six and 
a half gallons of wine measure, or 
22.0097 imperial gallons. 

IIelicalis. Appertaining to the 
border of the ear. 

Helicoid. Spirally curved like a 
snaiFs shell. 


Helix. Border of the external 
ear. 

Hellebore. A medicinal plant. 

Helminthia. Worms in the in¬ 
testinal canal. 

Helminthiasis. A disease in 
which worms are bred in the parts 
affected. 

Helminthic. Pertaining to 
worms. 

Helodes. A fever characterized 
by profuse sweating 

IIelopyra. Marsh fever. 

Hemachrome. The coloring mat¬ 
ter of blood. 

IIemastatic. A remedy for a 
flow of blood. 

Hematin, Hematosin, etc. (See 
Ilaematin, Haematosin, etc.) 

Hemi. Prefix signifying half. 

Hemiopia. A defect of sight by 
which only half an object is seen. 

Hemispheres. The two symmet¬ 
rical halves of the brain. 

Hemorrhage. Haemorrhage. 

Hepar. (L.) The liver. 

Hepatic. Pertaining to the liver. 

Hepatisation . Turning into a 
liver-like substance. 

Hepatorriiagia. Bleeding from 
the liver. 

Herbivorous. Living solely upon 
vegetable food. 

Hereditary. Inherited from 
parents or ancestors. 

Hermaphrodite. An individual 
combining the characteristics of both 
sexes. 

Hermetic. Closed so that no air 
can enter. 

Hernia. An unnatural protru¬ 
sion of the viscera; rupture; dis¬ 
placement of any part from its proper 
cavity. 

Hernia, Congenital. Hernia 
existing at birth. 

Hernia, Inguinal. Rupture at 
the groin. 

Hernia, Scrotal. A hernia ex¬ 
tending into the scrotum. 

Herniotomy. An operation for 
hernia. 



420 


LEXICON. 


Herpes. A kind of eruption on 
the skin. 

Heterogeneous. Of different 
substances; mixed. 

Heterologous. Of different ele¬ 
ments combined in different propor¬ 
tions. 

IIeteromerous. Unrelated as to 
chemical composition. 

Heteropathy. A method of re¬ 
moving a morbid state by inducing 
another morbid state. 

Hexad. A sexvalent element; 
one performing the same chemical 
function as six atoms of hydrogen. 

Hexagonal. Having six sides. 

Hexahedral. Having six plane 
sides or faces. 

IIexatomic. Composed of six 
atom's. 

Hg. Symbol for mercury. (Hy¬ 
drargyrum.) 

Hiatus. An aperture. 

Hieroglyphics. Sacred picture- 
writing of the ancient Egyptians. 

High Proof. Strongly alcoholic. 

Hip. The joint of the femur and 
pelvis. 

Hippuric Acid. An acid con¬ 
tained in urine. (See page 208.) 

Hirsuties. Superfluous growth 
of hair. 

Histology. The science of the 
minute structure of organized bodies. 

Hives. A common name for 
eruption. 

Hogshead. A large cask; a 
measure of quantity, containing 63 
wine gallons. 

Holden's Circle. (See page 

66 .) 

Holocaust. A burning entire, 
as at a sacrifice. 

Homogeneous. Of the same 
nature or properties. 

Homologous. Belonging to the 
same chemical series.' 

Honey. Fluid prepared by the 
bee. (See Antiseptics.) 

Hordeine. The starch of barley. 

Horripilation. A creeping sen¬ 
sation on the skin. 


Huile. (F.) Oil. 

Huile de Cade. (F.) Cade Oil. 

Humerus. (L.) The bone of 
the upper arm. 

Humeral. Belating to the arm. 

Humic Acid. An acid formed 
from mold by boiling it with 
alkalies and adding acids. 

Humor. A fluid of the body other 
than blood. 

Humus. (L.) A brown sub¬ 
stance formed by the action of the 
air upon solid animal or vegetable 
matter; a valuable constituent of soil. 

Hyaloid. Vitreous ; transparent 
like glass. 

II y bri D. Mongrel. 

Hydrarthrus. White swelling. 

Hydatid. A serous vesicle. 

Hydatiform. Having the ap¬ 
pearance of a hydatid. 

Hydatoid. Watery. 

Hydragogue. A medicine pro¬ 
ducing a watery discharge. 

Hydramine. Ammonia. 

Hydragyri Ammonio-Chlori- 
dum. (See Ammoniated Mercury.) 

Hydrargyi Chloridum Mite. 
(See Calomel.) 

IIydrargyri Iodidum. (Iodide of 
Mercury.) A compound of a yel¬ 
lowish color, which may be prepared 
by rubbing mercury and iodine to¬ 
gether in a proportion of one atom 
of the former to one atom of the 
latter, the mixture being moistened 
with alcohol. 

Hydrargyrum. Mercurv. 

i/ 

Hydrate. A substance combined 
with water, generally forming a 
neutral salt. 

Hydrated. Combined with 

water. 

Hydration. Becoming a hy¬ 

drate. 

Hydriodate. A salt formed by 
the union of hydriodic acid and 
some base. 

Hydriodic Acid. An acid formed 
by the combination of hydrogen and 
iodine. 

Hydriotaphia. Urn burial. 




LEXICON. 


-m 


Hydro a. A watery pustule. 

Hydrobromate. A salt formed 
by the union of hydrobromic acid 
and some base. 

Hydrobromic Acid. An acid 
formed by the combination of hydro¬ 
gen and bromine. 

Hydrocarbon. A compound of 
hydrogen and carbon. 

Hydrocarburet. (See Hydro¬ 
carbon.) 

Hydrochlorate. A compound 
formed by the union of hydrochloric 
acid with some base. 

Hydrochlorate of Ammonia. 
(Sal Ammoniac.) A salt obtained 
from the ammoniacal liquor of gas 
works. 

Hydrochloric Acid. (Muriatic 
Acid, Chlorohydric Acid.) A com¬ 
pound of chlorine and hydrogen. It 
is a colorless gas, very soluble in 
water, fuming strongly in damp air. 
Symbol, HC1. 

Hydrochloride. A chloride. 

Hydrocyanic Acid. (See Poi¬ 
sons.) 

Hydrofluoric Acid. An acid 
obtained by distilling fluoride of cal¬ 
cium with sulphuric acid. (See 
Fluorine.) 

Hydrogen . A light, inflammable 
gas. (See page 110.) 

Hydrogen Peroxide. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

Hydrogen, Phosphoretted. (See 
page 139.) 

Hydrogenate. To combine with 
hydrogen. 

Hydrometer. An instrument for 
determining- the specific gravity oi 
liquids. 

Hydropathy. Water-cure. 

Hydropericardium. Dropsy in 
the pericardium. 

Hydrophobia. Convulsions and 
dread of water, caused by the bite of 
a mad dog. 

Hydropic. Relating to dropsy. 

Hydrops. (L.) Dropsy. 

Hydrops Articula. (L.) Dropsy 
of the joints. 


Hydrosarca. A tumor contain¬ 
ing water and flesh. 

Hydroscope. An instrument in¬ 
tended to measure the presence of 
water in air. 

Hydrostatic Balance. An in¬ 
strument for weighing substances in 
water, to determine their specific 
gravity. 

Hydrosulpiiate, ) A combina- 

Hydrosulphuret. j tion of sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogen with an earth, 
alkali, or metallic oxide. 

Hydrosulphuric Acid. (Sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogen.) A colorless 
gas, having the smell of rotten eggs. 
It is a valuable reagent in the labora¬ 
tory. Formula, 1I 2 S. (See page 
oof \ 

/V/V 1 . J 

Hydrothorax. Dropsy in the 
cavity of the chest. 

Hydrous. Containing water. 

Hydroxide. A metal combined 
with hydroxyl. 

Hydroxyl. A monad radical, 
containing one atom of hydrogen 
and one of oxygen. 

IIydruret. A compound of hy¬ 
drogen with a metal. 

Hygiene. The art of preserving 
health. 

Hygroma. A tumor containing 
serous fluid. 

Hygrometer. An instrument for 
measuring the humidity of the at¬ 
mosphere. 

Hygroscopic. Gathering mois¬ 
ture ; easily affected by moisture. 

Hyocholic Acid. An acid found 
in the bile of the hog. 

Hyoglossus. A muscle of the 
tongue. 

IIyoides. A bone at the root of 
the tongue. 

Hyper. A prefix to.the names of 
acids, denoting an excess of oxygen. 

Hypercatharsis. Excessive purg¬ 
ing. 

Hyperaemia. Engorgement of 
blood-vessels. 

Hypercarburetted. Having the 
largest proportion of carbon. 








LEXICON. 


J •),•> 

/v /V 

IIyperchloric. Containing a 
greater proportion of oxygen than 
chloric acid. 

Hypermanganate of Potassa. 
(See Potassii Permanganas.) 

Hypermanganic Acid. An acid 
having larger proportion of oxygen 
than manganic acid. 

Hypertrophy. Morbid enlarge¬ 
ment. 

Hypo. A prefix denoting a com¬ 
pound containing a smaller quantity 
of oxygen. 

IIy : pochloriteofLime. (See Cal¬ 
ais Chloridum.) 

Hypochondrium. The region 
under the false ribs. 

Hypodermic. Under the skin. 

Hypogastrium. Lowest part of 
the abdomen. 

Hypoglossal. Beneath the 
tongue. 

Hyponitrous Acid. (SeeNitrous 
Acid.) 

Hy pophosphate. A compound 
of hypophosphoric acid with a 
base. 

Hypophospiiite. A compound of 
hypophosphorous acid with a base. 

Hypo phosphorous Acid. An acid 
obtained by decomposing hypophos- 
phite of lime by oxalic acid. 

Hypopyon. Pus in the anterior 
chamber of the eye. 

Hypostatic. Relating to or caused 
by stagnation. 

H yposulphate. A compound of 
hyposulphuric acid with a base. 

Hyposulphuric Acid. A heavy, 
colorless fluid, found only in com¬ 
bination with water. It contains less 
oxygen than sulphuric acid. 

Hyposulphite. A compound of 
hyposulphurous acid with a base. 

Hypothesis. A supposition. 

IIypoxantiiin. (See Chemistry 
of the Human Body.) 

Hyptera. The uterus. 

Hysteria. A spasmodic affection; 
supposed to arise from the womb. 

Hysterotomy. Caesarian Sec¬ 
tion. 


i. 

I. The symbol for iodine, which 
see. 

Ice. Water crystallized by cold 
below 32 F. (See Antiseptics.) 

Ichor. A thin acrid discharge. 

Ichthyosis. Horny excrescences 
upon the epidermis. 

Icterus. The jaundice. 

Idiopathic. A term applied to 
a morbid condition which arises pri¬ 
marily, and not in consequence of 
another disease or an injury. 

Idiosyncrasy, A singularity of 
individual constitution. 

Idiot. One born an imbecile. 

Ignition. Taking fire. 

Ileum. The longest of the smaller 
intestines. 

Iliac. Pertaining to the region 
of the loins. 

Ilium. The superior bone of the 
pelvis. 

Imbecility. Mental weakness. 

Imbricate. Overlapping like 
tiles upon a roof. 

Immiscible. That cannot be 
mixed. 

Impalpable Powder. A powder 
whose grains are so small that they 
cannot be perceived by touch. 

Imperatoria Ostrutiiium. (Mas- 
terwort.) A plant growing in 
the south of Europe, whose root is 
a stimulant aromatic, and once 
thought to be antiseptic. 

Imperforate. Congenitally 
closed up. 

Impervious. Impassable. 

Imponderable. Without weight. 

Impregnation. Fecundation. 

Impulsion. Onward flow of 
fluids, as of the blood. 

Inanition. Exhaustion. 

Incandescence. The glowing of 
heated bodies. 

Incarnation. Granulation. 

Incense. A mixture of fragrant 
gums, spices, etc., which produce a 
perfume when burned. 

Incinerate. To burn to ashes. 





LEXICON. 


Incineration. The process of 
burning to ashes. 

Incision. A clean cut made 
with a sharp-edged instrument. 

Incisors. The front or cutting 
teeth. 

Incoercible. In chemistry any 
substance that cannot be reduced to 
a liquid form by cold and pressure. 

Incombustible . That cannot be 
consumed by heat. 

Incommiscible. Not miscible. 

Incompatible. Not capable of 
union or of existing together. 

Incongruous. Incompatible. 

Incorporate. To combine into 
one mass or body. 

Incorrodible . Incapable of 
being corroded. 

Incrassate. To make thicker 
or more dense. 

Increment. Increase. 

Incubation. Hatching of eggs. 

Incubus. Night-mare. 

Incus. One of the small bones 
of the internal ear. 

Indelible. That cannot be 
effaced. 

Idex. The first finger. 

Indican. A principle existing 
in the indigo plant, upon which de¬ 
pends the formation of indigo, also 
found in urine in wasting disease. 

Indicator. A muscle of the 
first finger. 

Indigenous. Produced natur¬ 
ally in a certain country or region; 
not exotic. 

Indigestion . Dyspepsia. 

Indissoluble. That cannot be 
dissolved. 

Indium. A soft white metal re¬ 
sembling cadmium, discovered in 
18f»3 in certain zinc ores. 

Induration. Hardening. 

Inert. Inactive; unable to pro¬ 
duce effect. 

In exhalable . Incapable of evap- 
oration. 

Infection. The transmission of 
disease from one person to another 
by direct contact. 


423 

Infiltrate. To enter into the 
pores or interstices. 

Infinitesimal . Inconceivably 

small. 

Inflammable. Capable of com¬ 
bustion . 

Inflammation. Redness, heat, 
tension and swelling, due to the con¬ 
gestion of a part. 

Infusion. A medicine prepared 
by steeping a substance in hot or 
cold water. 

Infusoria. (L.) Microscopic 
animals found in fluids. 

Ingredient. One of the constit¬ 
uent parts of a compound. 

Inguen. The groin. 

Inguinal. Pertaining to the 
groin. 

Inhalation. Drawing in the 
jbreath. 

Inhumation. Burial in the earth. 

Injection. A liquid administered 
with a syringe. 

Innate. Existing at the time o: e 
birth. 

Innocuous. Harmless. 

Innominata Arteria. The 
right branch of the aorta. 

Innominatum Os. The bone 
formed by the union of the ilium, 
ischium, and pubic bones of the 
pelvis. 

Inoculation. Insertion of poison 
into the body. 

Inodorous. Scentless. 

Inorganic. A term applied to 
bodies which have no organs, such 
as minerals. 

Inosculation. Union of the ex¬ 
tremities of vessels, as of the arteries 
and veins by means of the capil¬ 
laries. 

Inosite. Sugar of muscular flesh. 
(See page 174.) 

Insalivation. Mixture of food 
with saliva in mastication. 

Insanity. Mental derangement. 

Insertion. Attachment of a 
muscle or tendon to the part which 
it moves. 

Insipid. Tasteless. 






424 


LEXICON. 


Insolate. To expose to the heat 
of the sun. 

Insoluble. That cannot be dis¬ 
solved. 

Insomnia. Sleeplessness. 

Inspiration. Act of taking air 
into the lungs. 

Inspissation. Thickening, or 
boiling down. 

Instrumental Labor. Child 
birth requiring the use of forceps or 
other instruments. 

Inter. A prefix denoting between . 

Interarticular. Between the 
joints. 

Intercostal. Between the ribs. 

Intermission. Time intervening 
between the recurrences of a periodic 
disease. 

Intermittent. Ceasing at inter¬ 
vals. 

Intermix. To mix together. 

Internal. Pertaining to the in¬ 
side. 

Interne. (F.) A house phy¬ 
sician. 

Interosseous. Between the 
bones. 

Interspaces. Intercostal spaces. 

Interstitial. Occurring in the 
interstices of an organ. 

Interval. Intermission. 

Intervertebral. Occurring be¬ 
tween the vertebras. 

Intestines. The bowels. 

Introrse. Turned inwards. 

Intumescence. A swelling. 

Intumescent. Swelling. 

Inulin. A variety of starch ob¬ 
tained from the roots of certain ves:- 
etables. 

Inversion. A turning inside out. 

Invertebrata. Animals without 
an internal bony structure. 

Iodate. A combination of iodic 
acid with some base. 

Iodic Acid. An acid chemically 
corresponding to chloric acid. For¬ 
mula, HI0 3 

Iodide. A binary compound of 
iodine with a metal or other sub¬ 
stance . 


Iodtne. One of the chemical 
elements. (See page 110.) 

Iodinum. (L.) Iodine. 

Iodoform. (Teriodide of For¬ 
myl.) An insoluble yellow solid, of 
sweet taste and peculiar odor, pro¬ 
duced by the action of iodine on a 
great number of organic substance. 
(See Antiseptics.) 

Iodol. See Antiseptics. 

Iodosis. Morbid effects of iodine. 

Iridectomia. Operation by ex¬ 
cision for artificial pupil. 

Iriditomia. Operation by inci¬ 
sion for artificial pupil. 

Iridium. A very hard, rare 
metal discovered in 1803. Specific 
gravity about 22. 

Iris. (L). A delicate circular 
membrane of the eye, suspended 
vertically behind the cornea, its per¬ 
foration forming the pupil. 

Iritis. Inflammation of the iris. 

Iron. One of the metallic ele¬ 
ments. (See page 110.) 

Irreducible. A term applied to 
incurable dislocations and fractures. 

Irrigation. Keeping a part wet. 

Irritation. Excessive action of 
any stimulus, causing a morbid in¬ 
crease in the circulation or sensibil¬ 
ity. 

Ischias . Rheumatism of the hip 
joint. 

Ischium. Lower bone of the pel¬ 
vis. 

Ischuria. Retention of the 
urine. 

Isinglass. Fish glue, obtained 
originally from the bladder of the 
sturgeon. 

Iso. A prefix meaning equal. 

Isochronous. Occurring at equal 
periods of time. 

Isolable. Capable of being ob¬ 
tained in a pure state free from for¬ 
eign substances. 

Isologous. Having similar pro¬ 
portions or relations. 

Isomeric. Of similar atomic 
proportions. 

Isomerism. An identity of ele- 



LEXICON. 


425 


ments and of atomic proportions, 
with a difference in the amount com¬ 
bined in the compound molecule 
and of its essential qualities. 

Isomorphism. A similarity of 
form. 

Isomorphous . Similar inform. 

Iso path y . Treating a disease by 
a medicine which produces the same 
effect as the disease. 

Isothermal . Possessing the same 
temperature. 

Itch . An eruption on the skin. 

Iter. (L.) A passage between 
parts. 

Ivory Black. Animal charcoal. 

J. 

Jactation. Tossing about. 

Jamestown Weed. A name for 
Batura Stramonium. (See Poisons.) 

Janipiia Maniiiot. Cassava 

plant. 

Janitor. A name applied to 
the pyloric orifice of the stomach. 

Japan. A varnish used in lac¬ 
quering metallic and other surfaces. 

Japan Camphor. A variety of 
crude camphor. 

Jaundice. A disease character¬ 
ized by yellowness of the skin and 
eyes, dependent upon obstruction of 
the biliary excretion. 

Javelle's Water. (See Hypo¬ 
chlorite of Potassa Solution, and An¬ 
tiseptics .) 

Jecur. (L). The liver. 

Jejunum. The second of the 
smaller intestines. 

Jelly. A stiffened solution of 
gum and the like, translucent, and 
intermediate in condition between 
solid and fluid. 

Jerked Beef. Beef preserved 
by being exposed to the sun in a dry 
atmosphere. 

Jews' Frankincense. Gum 
styrax or benzoin. 

Jews' Turpentine . Asphaltum. 

Joint. An articulation. 


Jugal Process. The zygomatic 
process of the temporal bone. 

Jugal Suture. The suture 
uniting the malar bone with the up¬ 
per jaw. 

Jugular. Pertaining to the 
throat. 

Jugular Veins. The main in¬ 
ternal and external veins of the 
neck. 

Jugulum. (L.) The throat. 

Juniper. An erect evergreen 
shrub, from eight to sixteen feet 
high, a native of Europe, and culti¬ 
vated in this country. Its tops and 
berries are stimulant and antiseptic. 

Juniper Camphor. A camphor 
formed by the action of hydrochloric 
acid on oil of juniper. 

Jurisprudence, Medical. Legal 
medicine. 

Juvans. (L.) An auxiliary 
remedy. 

J uventus . (L.) Adolescence. 

K. 

K. Symbol for potassium. (Kal- 
ium.) 

K.estvaen.. The Saxon name 
given the early English burial 
mounds. 

Kali. Potash. 

Kalium. Potassium. 

Kaolin. A variety of clay used 
for making porcelain; it arises from 
the decomposition of feldspar. 

Keratin. The organic basis of 
horny tissues, hair, nails, feathers, 
etc. 

Kerosene. A hydrocarbon oil 
extracted from bituminous matter. 

Kidneys. Glandular bodies in 
the lumbar region secreting urine. 

Kilogram. ) French meas- 

Kilogramme. j ure of weight 
being one thousand grammes, or 
about two pounds. 

Kilo liter. ) A French meas- 

Kilolitre. \ ure of quantity, 
being one thousand litres. 






LEXICON. 


420 


Kinate. A salt formed by the | 
union of kinic acid with a base. 

King’s Evil. An old name for 
scrofula, which it was supposed 
could be cured by a royal touch 

Kinol. A volatile principle ob¬ 
tained from coal-tar, identical with 
anilin. 

Koretomia . Operation for arti¬ 
ficial pupil. 

Kreatin. (See Creatin.) 

L. 

L. Symbol for lithium. 

Labarium. Looseness of teeth. 

Labarraque’s Solution. A dis¬ 
infecting fluid, the basis of which is 
chlorinated soda. (See Chloride of 
Soda Solution.) 

Labia. (L.) The lips. 

Labial. Pertaining to the lips. 

Labellum. A little lip. 

Labiate. Having lips. 

Labium. (L.) Singular of labium. 

Labor . Parturition. 

Laboratory. Place for chemi¬ 
cal operations. 

Labyrinth. Second cavitv of 
the ear. 

Lac. (L.) Milk. 

Lac. A resinous substance ob¬ 
tained from certain trees; it is the 
chief ingredient of sealing-wax. 

Laceration . Tearing. 

Lachryma. (L.) Tear. 

Lachrymal. Concerned in the 
secretion and transmission of the 
tears. 

Lachrymatories. Tear jugs 
found in ancient tombs. 

Lactate. A salt formed by the 
union of lactic acid with a base. 

Lactate of Zinc. A compound 
obtained by treating lactate of po- 
tassa with acetate of zinc. 

Lactation. The suckling of 
young. 

Lacteals. Absorbent vessels of 
the lymphatic system. 

Lactescent. Milk-like. 


Lactic Acid. A colorless syrupy 
liquid obtained from sour milk. 
(See Chemistry of the Human Body, 
page 259.) 

Lactiferous. Carrying milk. 

Lactometer. An instrument for 
measuring or ascertaining the qual¬ 
ity of milk. 

Lacuna. {Plural, lacuna, L .) A 
term applied to the excretory ducts 
of mucous glands. 

Lamina. (L.) A layer or plate. 

Laminated. Foliated in struc¬ 
ture, as the bones. 

Lamp-black . Fine soot formed 
by the condensation of the smoke of 
burning resinous matter. 

Lana Philosopiiica. (L.) Phi¬ 
losopher’s wool. A name formerly 
given to oxide of zinc prepared by 
combustion. 

Lanatus. (L.) Wooly. 

Lancet. A cutting instrument 
used in venesection. 

Lanthanum. A rare metal; sym¬ 
bol, La. 

Languor. Debility. 

Lapis Infernalis. (L.) Caustic 
potash. 

Lard. Animal fat freed from 
saline matter. 

Lardaceous. Besembling lard. 

Laryngeal. Belonging to the 
larynx. 

Laryngitis. Inflammation of 
the larynx. 

Laryngophony. Sound of the 
voice in the throat. 

Laryngotomy. Incision into 
the larynx. 

Larynx. The top of the wind¬ 
pipe, including the organs of voice. 

Lata . (L .) Broad. 

Lata Lig amenta. (L.) Broad 
ligaments. 

Latent. Hidden. 

Lateral. Belonging to the side. 

Lateritious. A term applied to 
a brick-dust sediment in the urine. 

Latissimus Dorsi. (L.) A broad 
and thin muscle of the back. 

Latus. (L.) Broad. 



LEXICON. 


427 >. 


Laudable Pus. Healthy pus 
discharged from wounds or ulcers in 
the healing state. 

Laudanum. The tincture of 
opium. (See Poisons.) 

Laughing Gas. (See Nitrous 
oxide.) 

Laurus Cassia.' The source of 
cassia. 

La urus Cinnamom ni. (See Cin¬ 
namon.) 

Lavement. (F.) A fomentation; 
a clyster. 

Lavipedium. (L.) A foot-bath. 

Lax. Diarrhoea. 

Laxative. A gentle purgative. 

Lazaretto. A lazar-house for 
disinfecting person and goods from 
contagious diseases. 

Lead. {Plumbum.) A common, 
soft, heavy metal. (See page 110.) 

Lead, Nitrate. (See Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Lead, Solution of Subacetate. 
(Goulard's Extract.) A preparation 
obtained by boiling together acetate 
of lead and oxide of lead, and filter¬ 
ing the solution. It is used exter¬ 
nally. See Poisons. 

Lead, Sugar of. (See Acetate of 
Lead.) 

Lead, Water. (See Lead, Solu¬ 
tion of Subacetate.) 

Lecithin. See page 182. 

Ledoyen’s Disinfecting Fluid. 
A preparation formed by dissolving 
a drachm of lead in an ounce of 
water. (See Antiseptics.) 

Lenitive. A term applied to 
gentle remedies. 

Lens. The crystalline body of 
the eye, transparent in health, opaque 
in cataract. 

Lenticular. Shaped like a lens; 
a variety of cataract. 

Lenticular Bone. Os orbiculare 
of the ear. 

Lepidosis. Scale; skin. 

Le pi dote. Scaly. 

Lepra . Leprosy. 

Leprosy. An endemic disease 
prevailing in the East. 


Leprous. Afflicted with leprosy. 

Leptothrix. A colony of bacteria 
clustered together end to end. 

Leptothrix Buccal^. A species 
of the above found in the mouth. 

Lesion. A hurt or injury. 

Lethal. Pertaining to death. 

Lethargy. Deep sleep or stupor. 

Leucin. (See page 157 .) 

Leucoma. A white speck on the 
eye. 

Leucosis. Disease of the lym¬ 
phatics. 

Levator. (D.) That which lifts 
up; name of certain muscles. 

Levig ation. (Porphyrization.) 
Reduction to an impalpable powder. 

Levulose. (See Glucose.) 

Libations. Liquids poured forth 
in sacrifice, in honor of some deity. 

Libra. (L.) A pound of twelve 
ounces. 

Ligament. An elastic, tendinous 
cord. 

Ligation. Securing an artery by 
ligature. 

Ligature. A thread by which 
an artery or vein is tied. (For 
choice see page 291.) 

Light Oil of Tar. A name 
given to the condensation of the 
more volatile principles, which first 
come over in the distillation of coal 
tar. 

Light Oil of Wine. An oil ob¬ 
tained from distilling alcohol with 
an excess of sulphuric acid. 

Ligneous. Of the nature of 
wood. 

Lignine. One of the constituents 
of woody fibre. 

Ligula. (L.) A strap. 

Limatura Ferri. (L.) Iron 
filings. 

Lime. (See Calx and Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Lime, Solution of Chlori¬ 
nated. (See Liquor Calcis Chlo¬ 
rate. ) 

Limosis. (L.) Morbid hunger. 

Limpid. Clear, transparent. 

Linea. (L.) A line. 








428 


LEXICON. 


Lingual. Pertaining to the 
tongue. 

Liniment. A fluid ointment for 
rubbing. . 

Linseed. Flaxseed. 

Liparia. Excess of fat. 

Lipoma. An adipose encysted tu¬ 
mor. 

Liquefaction. Turning from a 
solid into a liquid state. 

Liquid. A substance whose parts 
change their relative position on the 
slightest pressure. The term fluid 
extends to air and gases, but liquid 
does not embrace aeriform sub¬ 
stances. 

Liquor. A term applied to an 
aqueous solution in which the sub¬ 
ject acted oil is wholly dissolved in 
water. 

Liquor Amnii. (L.) Water sur¬ 
rounding the fetus in the uterus. 

Liquor Plumbi, Subacetatis. 
(L.) (See Lead, Solution of Subac¬ 
etate, and Antiseptics.) 

Liquor Potass,® Permanga- 
natis. (L.) Solution of perman¬ 
ganate of potash; a disinfectant. 

Liquor Sod.® Chlorat.®. (L.) 
(See Chloride of Soda Solution.) 

Liquor Zinci Chloridi. (L.) 
(See Antiseptics.) 

Lister Dressing. A surgical 
dressing designed to exclude bac¬ 
teria and germs by means of anti¬ 
septic gauze, waterproofing and ban¬ 
dages. 

Liter. (Litre.) A cubic deci¬ 
metre, equal to about 1.76 pints. 

Litharge. Yellow monoxide of 
lead. 

Lithate. A compound of lithic 
acid with some base. (See Urates.) 

Lithia. The oxide of lithium, 
occurring in various minerals and 
mineral waters. 

Litiiic. Relating to uric acid. 

Lithium. The lightest of the 
metals. It is of a white color, and 
fuses at 180°. 

Lithontripsy . Crushing stone 
in the bladder. 


Lithotomy. Cutting for stone in 
the bladder. 

Lithuria. Urine containing uric 
acid or urates. 

Litmus. A blue substance used 
by chemists for detecting free acids. 

Litre. (See Liter.) 

Liter. The organ of the body 
which secretes the bile. 

Livid. Having a purplish dis¬ 
coloration . 

Lixiviate. ) Impregnated with 

Lixiviated, j salts from wood 
ashes. 

Lixiviation. The extraction of 
alkaline salts from ashes by pouring 
water on them. 

Lobe. A division of an organ. 

Lobe of the Ear. The lower 
extremity of the outer ear. 

Lobulus. (L.) A small lobe. 

Local. Confined to a part. 

Lochia. The discharge from the 
womb after parturition. 

Loimic. Pertaining to pestilence. 

Loins. The lumbar region. 

Longissimus. (L.) The long¬ 
est. 

Longitudinal. Belonging to 
length; lengthwise. 

Longus. (L.) Long; the name 
of certain muscles. 

Lordosis. Curvature of the spine 
forwards. 

Lotio. (L.) A lotion. 

Lotion. A fluid medicine to be 
applied externally by rubbing. 

Lubricate. To oil or make 
smooth. 

Lucid. Clear. 

Lues. (L.) A poison or pesti¬ 
lence. 

Lumbago. A rheumatic affec¬ 
tion of the loins. 

Lumbar. Pertaining to the loins. 

Lumen. A light. This term is 
sometimes used to denote the caliber 
of a tube or vessel through which 
the light may be seen. 

Lunar Caustic. A name for 
nitrate of silver, which substance 
was used as early as the days of the 





LEXICON. 


420 


ancient Egyptians, who marked their 
mummy bandages with silver nitrate 
so that the writing might be indel¬ 
ible. 

Lunate. Shaped like a new moon. 

Lungs. The organs of respira¬ 
tion occupying the chest. 

Lu steal. Pertaining to purifi¬ 
cation. 

Lustration. A sacrifice or cer¬ 
emony by which cities, fields, armies 
or people, defiled by crimes, were 
supposed to be purified. 

Lute. A compound paste or 
cement for closing retorts, etc., in 
chemical operations. 

Luted. Closed with lute. 

Lutein. A name given to the 
crystallizable yellow principle found 
in the yolk of eggs, in carrots, etc. 

Luxation. Dislocation. 

Lye. Water impregnated with 
alkaline salts imbibed from the ashes 
of wood. 

Lymph. A thin animal fluid 
found in the lymphatics. 

Lymphadenoma. A disease char¬ 
acterized by great enlargement of 
the lymphatic glands, and a morbid 
deposit in the spleen. 

Lymphatics. The vessels which 
carry the “white blood” through 
the system. 

M. 

M. Mix or incorporate. 

Mace. (Macis). The yellowish, 
aromatic coating of the nutmeg. 

Macerate. To soften by thor¬ 
oughly steeping. 

Maceration. The process of 
softening by steeping. 

Macis. (See Mace.) 

Macula. (L.) A spot or blemish. 

Madder. The root of rubia tine- 
tor um, which is used for coloring 
purposes. 

Madeira Wine. The strongest 
of white wines, possessing a rich, 
aromatic flavor. 

Magister. A title of the middle 


ages, equivalent to the modern title 
of doctor. 

Magistery. A precipitate. 

Magistral Formulae. C o rn- 
pound medicines, extemporaneously 
prepared. 

Magnesia. The oxide of magne¬ 
sium; one of the alkaline earths. 

Magnesia, Calcined. Magnesia 
exposed to a red heat for some time. 

Magnesia, Alba. See Carbonate 
of Magnesia.) 

Magnesia, Sulphate. (See Ep¬ 
som Salts.) 

Magnesite. The silicate of mag¬ 
nesia. 

Magnesium. A metal of a silver 
white color, which fuses at a low, 
red heat. When strongly heated in 
the air, it takes fire and burns with 
a dazzling white light, forming its 
only oxide, magnesia. 

Magnetic Oxide of Iron. A 
native oxide, occurring in octahedral 
crystals. As the mineral lodestone, 
it forms one of the most valuable ores 
of iron. 

Magnetic Pyrites. A sulphuret 
which may he artificially prepared 
by applying solid sulphur to white- 
hot iron. 

Mahogany. (Swielenin Mahoget¬ 
ui.) A tree growing in Southern 
Florida, Central America, and the 
West Indies, whose wood is much 
used for ornamental work. 

Maize. Indian corn. 

Major. (L.) Greater. 

Malachite. Native carbonate of 
copper,having a beautiful green color. 

Malacosteon. (G.) Softness of 
the bones. 

Malaga. A kind of wine im¬ 
ported from the Spanish city of the 
same name. 

Malaria. A poison generated in 
unhealthy soils; miasma. 

Malar. Belonging to the cheek. 

Malate. A salt formed by the 
union of malic acid with some base. 

Malate of Iron. A salt formed 
by the union of malic acid with iron. 







430 


LEXICON. 


Malformation. Defective 1 
structure. 

Malic Acid. An acid obtained 
from apple juice; it crystallizes in 
brilliant, prismatic needles, and is 
very soluble. 

Malignant. Dangerous or pes¬ 
tilential. 

Malingering. Feigning sickness. 

Malleability. Property of be¬ 
ing extended when beaten, possessed 
by certain metals. 

Malleolar. Pertaining to the 
ankle. 

Malleolus. The ankle. 

Malleus. (L.) A hammer; the 
small bone of the inner ear, resem¬ 
bling a hammer. 

Malpighian Bodies. .Small 
bodies constituting part of the kid¬ 
neys. 

Malt. Barley grains made to 
germinate by warmth and moisture, 
and then baked so as to deprive them 
of vitality. 

Maltha. (Mineral Tar.) A name 
given to semifluid asphaltum or pe¬ 
troleum. 

Maltose. A sugar resembling glu¬ 
cose in many of its properties, and 
existing in malt, being the first pro¬ 
duct of the action of diastase upon 
starch. 

Malum. (L.) A disease. 

Mamma. (L.) The female breast. 

Mammalia . Animals which suckle 
their young. 

Mammary. Belonging to the 
breasts. 

Mammiform. Nipple-shaped. 

Mandibula. The jaw. 

Manes. Souls of the departed. 

Manganese. A reddish-white, 
hard, brittle metal, which decom¬ 
poses water at the ordinary tempera¬ 
ture and cannot be preserved in air 
without undergoing oxidation. 

Manganese Dioxide. (See Black 
Oxide of Manganese.) 

Manganese, Phosphate. A salt 
prepared from sulphate of manganese 
and phosphate of soda. 


Manganese, Sulphate. A salt 
obtained by treating black oxide of 
manganese with sulphuric acid. 

Manganese, Tartrate. A salt 
formed by the union of tartaric acid 
with manganese. 

Manganesium. (See Manganese.) 

Mania. Insanity; delirium. 

Manipulation. Using the hands 
in a skilful manner. 

Manometer. An instrument for 
measuring the pressure exercised by 
gases or liquids. 

Manus. (L.) The hand. 

Marasmus. Atrophy; emaciation. 

Marc. (F.) The refuse matter 
remaining after the pressure of fru its, 
especially grapes. 

Margarate. A compound of mar- 
garic acid with some base. 

Margaric Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained by digesting soap in water 
with an acid. 

Marine Acid. (See Hydrochloric 
Acid.) 

Mars. An ancient designation for 
the metal iron. 

Marseilles Vinegar. (Thieves* 
Vinegar.) A vinegar impregnated 
with aromatic substances. It received 
its name from the circumstance that 
four thieves, who, during the plague 
at Marseilles, had plundered dead 
bodies with impunity, owed their 
safety to its use. 

Martial. Relating to iron. 

Martial Ethiops. (See Magnetic 
Oxide of Iron.) 

Masseter. The muscle of the 
lower jaw. 

Massicot. The yellow oxide of 
lead, called also litharge. Symbol, 
PbO. 

Mastication. Chewing. 

Mastoid. Nipple-shaped. 

Materia. (L.) Matter. 

Materia Medica. (L.) The 
science of medicines. 

Materies Morbi. (L.) Morbid 
matter; the matter or material 
which is the cause of disease. 

Matrass. An egg-shaped chemical 




LEXICON. 


flask, with a tapering neck, open at 
the top. 

Matrix. (L.) The womb. 

Maturation. Ripening. 

Mausoleum. (See Mausolus.) 

Mausolus. A king of Caria, the 
husband of Artemisia, who erected 
to his memory a magnificent monu¬ 
ment, the Mausoleum, which was 
reckoned one of the seven wonders 
of the world. 

Maxilla. The jaw. 

Maxillary. Pertaining to the 
jaw. 

Maximum. (L.) The greatest; 
the highest dose. 

Measles. An epidemic eruptive 
fever. 

Meatus. (L.) A passage. 

Meatus Auditorius Externus. 
The auditory canal. 

Meatus Auditorius Internus. 
Inner auditory passage. 

Meatus Urinarius. The orifice 
of the urethra. 

Mechanical. Agents which are 
non-cheinical. 

Median. That which is situate 
in the middle. 

Median Line. An imaginary 
line drawn vertically through the 
symmetrical center of the body. 

Mediastinum. The membranous 
septum between the lungs, dividing 
the thorax behind the sternum. 

Mediate Auscultation. Using 
the stethoscope in listening to the 
sounds of internal organs. 

Medical. Relating to medicine. 

Medicament. A remedy. 

Medicaster. A quack. 

Medicinal. Possessing curative 
powers. 

Medicine . A substance adminis¬ 
tered in the treatment# of disease. 

Medico-Legal. Pertaining to 
law as affected by medical facts. 

Medicus. (L.) A physician. 

Medulla. Marrow; pith. 

Medulla Oblongata. (L.) Up¬ 
per part of a spinal chord where it 
joins the base of the brain. 


4;ji 

Medullary. Resembling or be¬ 
longing to marrow. 

Mel. (L.) (See Honey and Anti¬ 
septics. ) 

Melaena., Black discharges from 
the bowels. 

Melancholy. A disease charac¬ 
terized by gloominess and general 
depression of mind. 

Melanin. The black pigment 
of the choroid, melanotic tumors 
and skin of the negro; it occurs 
pathologically in the urine, and is 
deposited in the air-passages. 

Melanosis. A black morbid de¬ 
posit. 

Melissa. (See Balm.) 

Membrane. A skin-like tissue 
composed of interwoven fibers, cov¬ 
ering some part of the body. 

Membranes, Mucous. Those 
investing or lining cavities or canals 
which communicate with the open 
air. 

Membranes, Serous. Those lin¬ 
ing cavities which have no external 
communication. They have a smooth, 
glossy surface, from which exudes a 
transparent serous fluid which gives 
them their name. 

Membranous. Having the text¬ 
ure of membrane. 

Membrum. (L.) A member; a 
limb. 

Meningitis. Inflammation of 
the membranes of the brain. 

Menses. Monthly flow from the 
uterus. 

Menstruum. A solvent, or vehicle. 

Mensuration. The act or pro¬ 
cess of measuring the thorax, abdo¬ 
men, etc. 

Mentha A family of fragrant 
herbs, including peppermint, spear- 
ment and pennyroyal. (See Anti¬ 
septics. ) 

Mephitic. Offensive to the 
smell; foul; poisonous ; noxious. 

Mercurial. Relating to, or con¬ 
taining mercury. 

Mercury. The metal quicksil¬ 
ver. (See page 111.) 



432 


LEXICON. 


Meros. (G.) Tlie thigh. 

Merus. (L.) Pure; unadulter¬ 
ated. 

Mesenteric. Pertaining to the 
mesentery. 

Mesentery. The largest process 
of the peritoneum, to which the 
jejunum and ileum intestines are 
attached. 

Mesial Line. The middle line. 

Mesitylene. A colorless liquid 
derived from acetone, having an odor 
not unlike that of oil of pepper¬ 
mint. 

Mesocolon. Membrane of the 
colon. 

Metabolites.. That thrown out, 
or excreted, from the body. 

Metacarpal. Belonging to the 
metacarpus. 

Metacarpus. The hand between 
the wrist and the fingers. 

Metachloral. A white volatile 
solid, having an ethereal odor; in¬ 
soluble in water, alcohol and ether ; 
convertible at 180° into the liquid 
chloral. 

Metal. An electro-positive sub¬ 
stance having a peculiar luster, in¬ 
soluble in water, a good conductor 
of heat and electricity, and gener¬ 
ally solid at ordinary temperatures. 

Metaldehyde. A substance 
crystallised in long prisms, result¬ 
ing from the decomposition of alde¬ 
hyde. 

Metallic Phosphorus. A crys¬ 
talline modification of phosphorus, 
obtained by heating together red 
phosphorus and lead in a close vessel. 

Metalloid. An inflammable non- 
metallic body, such as sulphur, phos¬ 
phorus, etc. 

Metameric. Having the same 
chemical composition, but differing 
in physical properties. 

Metamorphosis. Transforma¬ 
tion. 

Metaphosphate. A salt formed 
by the union of metaphosphoric 
acid with some base. 

Metaphosphoric Acid. Atrans- 


parent, ice-like mass obtained by 
evaporating a solution of trihydro¬ 
gen phosphate and igniting the res¬ 
idue. Formula, HP0 3 . 

Metastannic Acid. An acid 
in the form of a white powder, ob¬ 
tained by the action of nitric acid 
on pure tin. 

Metastasis. The shifting of a 
disease from one part of the body to 
another. 

Metastatic. Belonging to me¬ 
tastasis. 

, Metatarsus. The foot between 
the ankle and toes. 

Method. A colorless liquid ob¬ 
tained in the distillation of wood. 

Methyl. A compound radical 
with the formula CH 3 . 

Methylamin. A colorless con¬ 
densible gas with a strong ammoni- 
acal smell and powerful alkaline reac¬ 
tion. 

Methylated Spirit. Alcohol 
mixed with one-ninth of its bulk of 
pyroxylic spirit. 

Metiiylic Alcohol. A spirit ob¬ 
tained in the destructive distillation 
of wood. 

Methyl-salicylic Acid. (Sali¬ 
cylate of Methyl.) An acid consti¬ 
tuting nine-tenths of the oil of gaul-* 
tlieria, and which forms, with bases, 
crystalline salts. 

Metopum. The forehead. 

Metric. Pertaining to measure¬ 
ment. 

Metric System. See tables at the 
end of lexicon. 

Metritis. Inflammation Qf* the 
womb. 

Mg. Symbol for magnesium. 

Miasm. Morbid emanation. 

Mica. A mineral occurring in 
thin plates. 

Microbacteria. Smallest bac¬ 
teria. 

Microbes. Minute forms of life. 
(See Bacteria.) 

Micrococcus. The best known 
form of the sphero-bacteria. 

Microcosm. A little world. 



LEXICON. 


Micrometer. An instrument for 
measuring very small intervals. 

Microsublimation. A process of 
recognizing volatilized substances, 
consisting in the joint application of 
a subliming beat and of the micro¬ 
scope. 

M icturition. Urination. 

Midriff. The diaphragm. 

Mild Chloride of Mercury. 
(See Calomel.) 

Milk Leg. An inflammation of 
the inguinal glands and the lym¬ 
phatics of the leg; usually occurring 
after child-birth. 

Milk of Lime. Lime in excess 
mixed with water so as to form a 
thick liquid. 

Milk Sickness (Trembles.) A 
peculiar endemic disease. 

Milk Teeth. The first set of 
teeth. 

Milligram. f A French mea- 

Milligramme. \ sure of weight, 
being the thousandth part of a 
gramme (.015 grains). 

Milliliter. } A French measure 

Millilitre, j of capacity, being 
the thousandth part of a litre. 

Millimeter. | A French measure 

Millimetre, f of length, being the 
thousandth part of a metre. 

Mimi. Imitative actors who ap¬ 
peared in the Roman funeral proces¬ 
sion. 

Mimosa-resin. Myrrh. 

Mineral. Any inorganic sub¬ 
stance having a definite chemical 
composition. 

Mineral Alkali. Native car¬ 
bonate of soda. 

Minim. The sixtieth part of a 
fluid drachm. 

Misanthropy. Morbid love of 
solitude. 

Miscarriage. Expulsion of the 
fetus in the earlier months of preg¬ 
nancy. 

Miscible. Capable of being mixed. 

Mistura. (L.) A mixture. 

Mitral. Name of the left auri- 
culo-ventricular valves of the heart. 

28 


Mobility. Excessive nervous sus¬ 
ceptibility. 

Modus Operandi. (L.) The 
manner of action. 

Moist Peroxide of Iron. A pre¬ 
cipitate obtained by adding to a solu¬ 
tion of tersulphate of iron, water of 
ammonia to excess. . 

Molars. The large grinding-teeth 
in the back part of the jaw. • 

Molasses. Impure syrup obtained 
in the making of sugar. 

Molecular Attraction. At¬ 
traction acting between the molecules 
of bodies at insensible distances. 

Molecule. (See page 118.) 

Mollities. (L.) Softening. 

Molybdate. A compound of 
molybdic acid with some base. 

Molybdenum. A rare metal. 

Monad. A minute infusorial or¬ 
ganism; also a term used in chemis¬ 
try. (See page 120.) 

Monad, Micrococcus, oi-Moner. 
Immobile point-like microbes, often 
regarded as spores. 

Monas Crepusculum. The most 
frequent form of infusorial life. 

Monoammoniac Carbonate. (Bi¬ 
carbonate of Ammonia.) A salt of 
ammonia, formed from the sesqui- 
earbonate. 

Monobasic. Having only one 
part of base to one of acid. 

Monograph. A treatise on some 
special topic. 

Monoiiydrated Nitric Acid. 
The strongest nitric acid that can be 
procured. 

Monomania. Insanity upon some 
single subject. 

Mons Veneris. (L.) The pu¬ 
bic prominence in women. 

Monster. An unnatural forma¬ 
tion. 

Morbid. Diseased. 

Morbific. Causing disease. 

Morbus. (L.) A disease. 

Mordant. A substance used to 
fix the colors in dyeing. 

Morgue. (F.) A building in 
which the bodies of the unknown 




434 


LEXICON. 


dead are exposed for identifica¬ 
tion. 

Moribund. Dying. 

Morphia. The chief narcotic 
principle of opium, from which it is 
extracted by water and purified. 

Morphology. The science which 
treats of ideal forms of structure. 

Mors. (L.) Death. 

Mortification. Death of a part. 

Mortuary. Pertaining to the 
burial of the dead; also a place for 
their deposition. 

Moschus. (Musk.) A fragrant 
substance secreted by the musk-deer. 

Mother-Liquor. ) The impure 

Mother-Water, j residue of a 
solution from which crystals have 
been obtained. 

Mother of Vinegar. (Myco- 
derma Aceti.) A vegetable growth 
necessary for the acetification of al¬ 
cohol. 

Motor. That which moves; nerves 
upon which voluntary action de¬ 
pends. 

Motory. Giving motion. 

Mucate A salt formed by the 
union of mucic acid with some base. 

Mucedo. The germ of the mi¬ 
croscopic plants upon which fermen¬ 
tation depends. 

Mucic Acid. An acid obtained 
from gums by the action of nitric 
acid. 

Mucilage. A solution of gum. 

Mucin. A compound contained 
in the secretions of mucous mem¬ 
branes. (See page 160.) 

Mucors. Bacteria. 

Mucus. A viscid fluid secreted 
by the mucous membrane. (See 
page 159.) 

Mucous. Slimy. 

Mucous Membrane. (See Mem¬ 
brane, Mucous.) 

Multifidous. Divided into many 
parts. 

Multilocular. Having many 
cells. 

Multiramose. Having many 
branches. 


Mummy. A body preserved in a 
dry state. The Arabic word mon- 
mya probably comes from two Cop¬ 
tic words, signifying dead, and salt . 
In Arabic mum signifies wax. The 
Egyptian mummies still extant are 
dry, black and brittle, although some 
of a yellowish color are flexible to 
the present day. This is probably 
due to their having been injected 
with some chemical fluid in the 
veins. The mummies of cats, croc¬ 
odiles, bulls and other animals are 
also of frequent occurrence. 

Mural. Pertaining to a wall. 

Murexide. A purple dye-stuff, 
obtained by the reaction of nitric 
acid on the uric acid. 

Muriate. A salt obtained by the 
union of muriatic acid with some 
base. 

Muriate of Ammonia. (See 
Ammonia Hydrochlorate.) 

Muriate of Soda. (See Chloride 
of Sodium.) 

Muriatic. Pertaining to, or ob¬ 
tained from sea-salt, as 

Muriatic Acid. (See Hydro¬ 
chloric Acid.) 

Muriatic Acid Gas. The vapor 
of hydrochloric acid. It is color¬ 
less, possesses a pungent odor, and 
has the property of destroying life 
and extinguishing flame. 

Muride. An old name given to 
bromine on account of its being ob¬ 
tained from sea-water. 

Muscle. An organ of motion in 
animals, consisting of fibers inclosed 
in cellular membrane. 

Muscular. Pertaining to mus¬ 
cle. 

Musk. (See Moschus.) 

Must. The expressed juice of 
the grape. 

Mutilation. Want of a member. 

Mycelium. A filamentous body 
from which a mushroom or fungus 
is developed. 

Mycetes. A family of plants to 
which the genera Spermcedia and 
Boletus belong. 



LEXICON. 


435 


Mycoderma. (See Mother of 
Vinegar.) Colonies of bacteria in 
sheets, and immobile. 

Mylo-Hyoideus. Name of mus¬ 
cles of the lower jaw. 

Myloides, Like a muscle. 

Myology. Description of the 
muscles. 

Myopia. Short-sightedness. 

M yops. One who is short-sighted. 

Myosin. (See page 172.) 

Mi r osis. Unnatural contraction 
of the pupil. 

Myositis. Inflammation of mus¬ 
cles. 

Myotomy. Cutting of a muscle. 

Myriagram. \ A French 

Myriagramme. [ measure of 
weight, being ten thousand grammes. 

Myrialiter. j A French meas- 

Myrialitre. f ury of capacity, 
being ten thousand litres. (See 
Metric Tables.) 

Myristica. (Nutmeg.) The tree 
yielding nutmeg and mace. 

Myrrh. (MyrrJici.) A gum 
resin obtained from the Balsamoclen- 
dron myrrha. It was used by the 
Egyptian embalmers to fill the cav¬ 
ity of the abdomen with. (See 
Antiseptics.) 

N. 

• 

N. Symbol for nitrogen. 

Na. Symbol for sodium. 

Nacta. An abscess of the breast. 

N^evus. A birth-mark ; a blem¬ 
ish. 

Nails. Horny laminae on the ex¬ 
tremities of the lingers and toes. 

Naphtha. (Commercial Ben¬ 
zine.) A volatile hydrocarbon con¬ 
densed in the distillation of purified 
petroleum. 

Naphthalin. A white, shining, 
crystalline substance obtained by 
distilling coal tar. 

Narcosis. The effect produced 
by narcotic drugs. 

Narcotic. Stupefying; produc¬ 
ing sleep. 


Nard. (Spikenard.) The aro¬ 
matic root of a species of valerian. 
The ancients were acquainted with 
several kinds; lavender was known 
as pseudo-nard and largely used in 
public and private baths, but true 
oil of nard was very expensive, and 
possessed a delightful fragrance, and 
was only employed in pomades, etc. 

Nares. (L.) The nostrils. 

Nasal. Pertaining the nose. 

Nascent. In the act of being 
produced or developed. 

Nasus. (L.) The nose. 

Natans. (L.) Floating. 

Natron. The native neutral 
carbonate of soda, found in the 
“natron lakes'” of the Libyan des¬ 
ert. In the process of embalming, 
the ancient Egyptians used this sub¬ 
stance as a bath, in which the body 
was kept immersed for seventy days; 
it was also placed in the abdomen, 
together with cedar chips. (See 
Antiseptics.) 

Natrum. The old name for 
sodium. 

Navel. The depression in the 
center of the abdomen. 

Nebula. (L.) A cloud or speck 

in the cornea of the eve; sometimes 

«/ ' 

used as a synonym for ‘ ‘ vapor . 9 

Necrology. Mortality. 

Necropsy. ) Post-mortem 

Necroscopy", j examination. 

Necrosis. Death of a bone. 

Nectar. The honey and other 
sweetish secretions of the glands of 
plants. 

Neoplasty". A surgical opera¬ 
tion for the formation of new parts. 

Nephralgia. Pain in the kidney. 

Nephritic. Pertaining to the 
kidney. 

Nephritis. Inflammation of the 
kidney. 

Nepiiros. (G.) The kidney. 

Nephrotomy". Cutting a stone 
out of the kidnev. 

%j 

Neroli. An oil obtained from 
orange flowers, and much used in 
perfumery. 




43G 


LEXICON. 


Nerves. Whitish cords of deli¬ 
cate nervous substance, which ramify 
through the body. 

Nervine. A medicine which 
soothes nervous excitement. 

Nervous. Pertaining to a nerve. 

Neuralgia. Pain in a nerve. 

Neurine. The substance of the 
nerves. 

Neuro-keratin. The substance 
which composes the sheath of the axis 
cylinder of nerves. 

Neurologm . Science of the nerv¬ 
ous system. 

Neuron. (G.) A nerve. 

Neurotic. Pertaining to the 
nerves. 

Neurotoma. Cutting of a nerve. 

Neutral. A term applied to sub¬ 
stances which have neither the prop¬ 
erties of an alkali or an acid; also to 
salts in which the base is perfectly 
saturated without excess of either 
acid or alkali. 

Neutralized. Deprived of acid 
or alkaline qualities. 

Neutral Salt. A salt in which 
none of the properties of the acid or 
base are susceptible. 

Ni. Symbol for nickel. 

Nictation. Morbid quivering of 
the eyelids. 

Niger. (L.) Black. 

Nigrities. (L.) Blackness. 

Nihil Album. (L.) The oxide 
of zinc. 

Niobium. A rare metal, formerly 
called Columbium. 

Niter. (Nitre.) The nitrate of 
potassium, a white crystalline salt 
having a pungent, saline taste. It 
occurs as an efflorescence on the soil 
in several dry, tropical countries, and 
can be obtained from the decomposi¬ 
tion of animal matter in the presence 
of bases. It is largely used in the 
manufacture of gunpowder. (Called 
also saltpeter. See Antiseptics.) 

Nitrate. A salt formed by the 
union of nitric acid with a base. 

Nitrate of Lead. (See Plambi 
JYitras.) 


Nitrate of Mercury. A salt ob¬ 
tained by dissolving mercury in nitric 
acid. 

Nitrate of Potassa. (See Ni¬ 
ter. ) 

Nitrate of Silver. A salt of 
silver obtained by dissolving the 
metal in nitric acid. See also Lunar 
Caustic. 

Nitre. (See Niter.) 

Nitre, Cubic. (See Cubic Ni¬ 
tre. ) 

Nitric Acid. A strongly fuming 
liquid, colorless when pure, obtained 
by distilling together saltpeter and 
sulphuric acid. Formula, HN0 3 . 

Nitrite. A salt formed by the 
union of nitrous acid with a base. 

Nitrobenzide. ) A product ob- 

Nitrobenzole. f tained by the ac¬ 
tion of fuming nitric acid on benzole. 
It is an oily, yellowish liquid, very 
sw r eet, with an odor like that of oil 
of bitter almonds. (See Artificial 
Oil of Bitter Almonds.) 

Nitrogen. A gaseous element 
incapable of supporting life. (See 
page 111.) 

Nitrogenous. Pertaining to, or 
containing nitrogen. 

NiTRO-GLA r CERiNE. (GlonoinA A 
very explosive substance, obtained by 
adding to glycerine, in small portions 
at a time, equal parts of strong nitric 
and sulphuric acids. 

Nitro-prusside of Sodium. A 
salt obtained by saturating nitro- 
prussic acid with sodium, and evap¬ 
orating. It is used as a test for alka¬ 
line sulphurets. 

Nitrous Acid. An acid having 
the formula, HN0 2 . 

Nitrous Oxide. (LaughingGas.) 
A colorless, inodorous gas possessing 
a slightly sweet taste. When exposed 
to pressure or intense cold it liquifies. 
When inhaled, nitrous oxide pro¬ 
duces a peculiar intoxicating effect 
on the human frame, hence it has 
been called laughing gas. 

Noctambulation. Sleep - walk¬ 
ing. 




LEXICON. 


43 r 


Node. A morbid excrescence upon 
bones. 

Normal. Natural; healthy. 

Normal Solution. A normal so¬ 
lution contains one molecular weight 
in grammes, dissolved in one litre of 
water. 

Nosology. Classification of dis¬ 
ease. 

Nostalgia. Ilome-sickness. 

Nostrum. A quack remedy. 

Nuclein. The chemical sub¬ 
stance of which the cellular nuclei 
are composed. It may be decom¬ 
posed into albumen, phosphoric acid, 
and adenine. 

Nucleus. (Plural, nuclei.) A 
kernel; a center around which for¬ 
mation takes place; the center or 
growing part of a cell. (See Fig. 20.) 

Nudus. (L.) Naked. 

Nutgalls. (See Galls.) 

Nutmeg. (See Myristica.) 

Nux Vomica. The seeds of 
Strychnos nux vomica, a small tree 
growing in the East. In large doses 
they are very poisonous. (See Poi¬ 
sons.) 

o. 

0. Symbol for oxygen. 

Oakum. A mixture of tow and 
hemp, used for dressing wounds. 

Obcordate. Inversely heart- 
shaped. 

Obesity. Excessive corpulence. 

Obfuscation. Paralysis of the 
optic nerve. 

Oblique. Name of certain mus¬ 
cles. 

Obliteration. Disappearance of 
a part. 

Obovate. Inversely egg-shaped. 

Obstetrician. One who prac- j 
tices midwifery. 

Obstetrics. The art of treating 
women during and after pregnancy 
and delivery. 

Obstetrix. (L.) A midwife. 

Obstruent. Shutting up; astrin¬ 
gent. 


Obturator. Name of certain 
muscles which close or cover up. 

Occipital. Pertaining to the 
back of the head. 

Occipito-Atloid. Pertaining to 
the occiput and atlas. 

Occipito-Frontalis. A muscle 
under the scalp, extending from the 
occiput to the forehead. 

Occiput. The back part of the 
head. 

Occlusion. The state of being 
closed or hidden. 

Occult. Secret; hidden. 

Ochra. The fore-part of the tibia. 

Ochre. An ore of iron. 

Octahedral. Having eight equal 
faces or sides. 

Ocular. Pertaining to the eye. 

Oculist. An eye doctor. 

Oculus. (L.) The eye. 

Odontalgia. Tooth-ache. 

Odontiasis. Dentition; cutting 
teeth. 

Odonticus. Pertaining to the 
teeth. 

Odontoid. Tooth-like. 

Odontology. The anatomy of 
the teeth. 

Odor. A smell, fragrant or offen¬ 
sive. 

Odorine. A product of the re¬ 
distillation of the volatile oil, ob¬ 
tained by distilling bones ; it has a 
strong odor. 

(Edema. Tumefaction arising 
from serous effusion into the cellular 
membrane. 

(Enantiiic. Having or impart¬ 
ing the characteristic odor of wine. 

(Esophagus. The gullet, leading 
from the pharynx to the stomach. 

(Esophagotomy. Opening of the 
gullet to remove some foreign body. 

(Esophagitis. Inflammation of 
the oesophagus. 

Officinal. A term applied to 
such medicines as are directed bv the 
colleges to be prepared or kept in 
the shops. 

Officinal Alcohol. (See Alco¬ 
hol.) 






LEXICON. 


Oil. An unctuous substance ob¬ 
tained from animal or vegetable 
sources. (See Fats, page 163.) 

Oil of Cedar. (See Cedar Oil.) 

Oil of Thyme. ( Oleum Thymi.) 
A volatile oil used for external ap¬ 
plications. (See Antiseptics.) 

Oil of Turpentine. An oil 
commonly called Spirits of Turpen¬ 
tine, prepared by distillation from 
common turpentine. (See Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Oil of Vitriol. (See Sulphuric 
Acid.) 

Oil of Wormwood. A volatile 
oil obtained from the tops and leaves 
of Artemesia absinthium . 

Oil, Palm. A yellow fixed oil, of 
the consistency of butter, obtained 
from a palm tree growing on the 
west coast of Africa. (See Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Oils, Essential. (Essential oils.) 
Oils which possess in a concentrated 
form the properties of the plants 
from which they are derived. 

Ointment. A soft, unctuous sub¬ 
stance which serves to anoint. 

Oleaginous. Resembling oil. 

Oleate. A compound of oleic 
acid with some base. 

Olefiant. Forming or producing 
oil. 

Olefiant Gas. Heavy carbu- 
retted hydrogen. 

Oleic Acid. An oily liquid, in¬ 
soluble in water, crystallizing in 
needles a little below the freezing 
point, and having a slight smell and 
pungent taste. 

Olein. (Elain.) The liquid part 
of oils. 

Oleum. (L.) Oil. 

Olfactory. Pertaining to the 
sense of smell. 

Olieanum. The frankincense of 
the ancients; a fragrant gum-resin. 

Olivary. Olive-shaped. 

Omentitis. Inflammation of the 
caul, or omentum. 

Omentum. The caul; the peri¬ 
toneal apron covering the bowels. 


Omnivorous. Subsisting upon 
both animal and vegetable food. 

Omo-Hyoides. A muscle of the 
neck. 

Omphalitis. Inflammation of the 
navel. 

Omphalos. (G.) The navel. 

Opacity. Property of obstructing 
light. 

Opaque. Impervious to light. 

Ophthalmia. Inflammation of 

the eyes. 

Ophthalmos. (G.) The eye. 

Opiate. An anodyne. 

Opium. A narcotic yielded by the 
poppy. 

Oppilation. Obstruction. 

Opponens. (L.) Opposing. 

Optic. Relating to vision. 

Optics. The science of the laws 
of light and vision. 

Orbicular. Of spherical form. 

Orbit. The cavity of the eye. 

Orbital. Pertaining to the orbit. 

Orchis. (G.) The testicle. 

Orchitis. Inflammation of the 
testicle. 

Orchotomy. Castration. 

Ordeal Bean of Calabar. (See 
Poisons.) 

Ore. A native mineral contain¬ 
ing metals, salts, etc. 

Organ. Any portion of the body 
having some definite function. 

Organic. Possessing organs. 

Organism. The living economy. 

Organized. Endowed with life 
and organs. 

Orgasm. A state of excitement. 

Orifice. An aperture. 

Origanum. (Marjoram.) A per¬ 
ennial herb native of Europe and 
America. It contains a volatile oil 
which has a peculiar agreeable ar¬ 
omatic odor and a warm pungent 
taste. 

Origin. The fixed point or com¬ 
mencement of any muscle. 

Orpiment. Yellow sulplmret of 
arsenic. 

Orthopaedic. Relating to the re¬ 
moval of deformities. 







LEXICON. 


439 


Os. (L.) A bone. 

Os. (L.) The mouth. 

Os Extern us. The mouth of the 
vagina. 

Os Tinc.e. The mouth of the 
womb. 

Oscheal. Pertaing to the scro¬ 
tum. 

Osme. (G.) Odor. 

Osmiate. A salt formed by the 
union of osmic acid with some base. 

Osmium. A gray-colored metal, 
found in connection with platinum. 
Symbol, Os. 

Osmose. (Osmosis.) The power 
or action whereby liquids are im¬ 
pelled through a moist membrane 
and other porus partitions. 

Osmosis. (See Osmose.) 

Ossa Alba. (L.) The tartar 
occurring on the teeth, etc. 

Ossary. A repository for bones. 

Ossein. (See Collagen.) 

Osseous. Bony. 

Ossicula . Little bones. 

Ossificaton . Formation of bone. 

Osteine. The organic matter of 
bone after the earthy matter has 
been removed. 

Ostalgia. Pain in a bone. 

Osteocolla . The glue-like sub¬ 
stance which unites fractured bones. 

Osteogeny. The growth of bones. 

Osteology . Description of bones. 

Osteoma. A bony tumor. 

Osteomalacia. A softening of 
the bone. 

Osteon. (G.) A bone. 

Ostitis . Inflammation of a bone. 

Ostium . An orifice. 

Otalgia. Ear-ache. 

Otic. Pertaining to the ear. 

Otitis. Inflammation of the in¬ 
ternal ear. 

Otorriicea. A discharge from 
the ear. 

Otology. A treatise on the ear. 

Otoplasty . An operation for 
restoring the ear. 

Ounce. The sixteenth of a pound, 
avoirdupois, or the twelfth of a 
pound, troy weight. The troy ounce 


contains four hundred and eighty 
grains, the avoirdupois ounce four 
hundred and thirty-seven and a half 
grains. 

Ouron. (G.) The urine. 

Ovalbumen. The white of an 
egg. 

Ovary. An oval bodv connected 

9 %j 

with the uterus by the broad liga¬ 
ment, one on each side, and contain¬ 
ing a number of vesicles or ova. 

Ovate . Egg-shaped. 

Oviparous. Bringing forth young 
in an egg. 

Ovule. A rudimentary seed 

Ovum. (L.) An egg. 

Oxalate. A salt formed by the 
union of oxalic acid with some base. 

Oxalic Acid. An acid, crystal¬ 
lizing in prisms, which is met with 
in the juices of many plants. It 
may be prepared by decomposing 
sugar by nitric acid. (See Poisons.) 

Oxalis Acetosella. (Wood Sor¬ 
rel.) A common, perennial plant 
from which is obtained binoxalate of 
potash or salts of sorrel. (See 
Poisons.) 

Oxaluria . Presence of oxalates 
in the urine. 

Oxamide . A light, white powder, 
insoluble in cold water and alcohol. 

Oxidate. To convert into an 
oxide. 

Oxidation. The combining of a 
certain quantity of oxygen with 
metals or other substances. 

. Oxide. A compound of oxygen 
with a metal or other substance. 
The term is usually applied to those 
compounds of oxygen which are not 
acids. 

Oxidize. To convert into an 
oxide. 

Oxyacetic Acid. (See Glycholic 
Acid.) 

Ox ychloric. Consisting of 
oxygen and chlorine. 

Oxychloride of Calcium. Chlor¬ 
inated lime. 

Oxygen. One of the gaseous 
elements. (See page 111.) 



440 


LEXICON - . 


Oxygenate. To combine with 
oxygen. 

Oxygenated Muriatic Acid. 
Chlorine. 

Oxyhemoglobin. The coloring 
matter of the blood as it exists in 
arterial blood, loosely combined with 
a certain quantity of oxygen. 

Oxyhemoglobin, Reduced . 
(Haemoglobin.) The condition of 
the above during the passage of 
arterial into venous blood. 

Oxyii ydrogen. Containing a 

mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. 

Oxymuriate. A chloride. 

Oxyopia. Acuteness of vision. 

Oxysulpiiuret. A combination 
of sulphur with a metallic oxide. 

Oxytoxic. Expediting delivery. 

Ozena. An ulcer in the nose. 

Ozone. Oxygen in an active or 
concentrated state. 

Ozonic Ether. A name for a 
solution of peroxide of hydrogen in 
ether. 

Ozonides. Oxides in which the 
oxygen appears to exist as ozone. 

P. 

P. The symbol for Phosphorus. 

Pabulum. (L.) Food; aliment. 

Pachyaema. A thick state of 
the blood. 

Pad. A small cushion. 

Paediatrics. The study of the 
diseases of children. 

Paedotiiropia. The nourish¬ 
ment of children. 

PagliarPs Styptic. A liquid 
said to have the property of causing 
an instant coagulation of the blood. 
It is composed of a tincture of ben¬ 
zoin combined with alum. 

“Pakfong.” The white copper 
of the Chinese. 

Palatal. Pertaining to the pal¬ 
ate. 

Palate. The roof of the mouth. 

Palatopharyngeus. Muscle 
of the palate. 


Paleaceous. Chaffy. 

Palladium. A gray metal, of 
fibrous structure, discovered in 1803. 

Palliative. Medicines afford¬ 
ing relief without curing. 

Pallor. Paleness. 

Palma. (L.) The palm of the 
hand. 

Palmar. Belonging to the palm 
of the hand. 

Palmar Arch. A name given 
to the branches of the radial and 
ulnar arteries, which cross the palm 
of the hand. 


Palmaris. (L.) Pertaining to 
the palm of the hand. 

Palmaris Longus. [ Muscles o£ 
the palm of the hand. 

Palmate. A salt formed by the 
union of palmic acid with some base. 

Palmic Acid. (Ricinelaidic Ac¬ 
id.) An acid obtained by the saponi¬ 
fication of Palinin. 

Palmin. A fatty substance ob¬ 
tained by the action of nitrous acid 
on castor oil. 

Palmitic Acid. An acid ob¬ 


tained by the saponifiction of pal- 
mitin. 

Palmitin. A peculiar constitu¬ 
ent of palm oil. 

Palm Wine. A liquor obtained 
by the fermentation of the juice of 
the palm tree. It was used by the 
Egyptian embalmers to cleanse the 
cavity of the abdomen. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

Palpable. That can be appre¬ 
hended by touch. 

Palpation. Touching; explor¬ 
ing by the hand. 

Palpitation. Morbid mobility 
of the heart. 

Palsy. Local paralysis. 

Paludal. Pertaing to a swamp. 

Panacea. A universal remedy. 

Pancreas. A gland seated be¬ 
hind the stomach which secretes the 
pancreatic juice. (See page 199.) 

Pancreatic. Belonging to the 
pancreas. 




LEXICON. 


441 


Pancreatic Duct. The canal 
from the pancreas to the duodenum. 

# Pancreatic Juice. The secre¬ 
tion from the pancreas. (See page 

Pancreatin. A substance ob¬ 
tained from the pancreatic juice, 
having the power of converting 
starch into sugar. 

Pandemic . Endemic. 

Papilla. A small nipple-shaped 
projection. 

Para-Albumen. A modified 
form of albumen, found in the liquid 
of dropsical ovaries. 

Paracelsus. A celebrated Swiss 
physician, who lived at the close of 
the fifteenth century. 

Paracentesis. Tapping. 

Paracinesis. Disease of the 
motor nerves. 

Paracusis. Diminution of hear¬ 
ing. 

Paraffin. ) A white translu- 

Parafine. j cent substance re¬ 
sembling sperma-ceti, obtained 
from the distillation of tar. It of¬ 
fers great resistance to chemical ac¬ 
tion. 

Paralactate. A compound 
formed by the union of paralactic 
acid with some base. 

Paralactic Acid. (See page 175.) 

Paralbumen. (See page 177.) 

Paralysis. Loss of motion or 
sensation. 

Paranapiithaline. (Anthra¬ 
cene.) A substance resembling 
naphthaline found in coal tar. 

Paraplegia. Paralysis of the 
lower half of the body. 

Pararchists. The Egyptian 
priests whose office it was to make 
the necessary incisions upon a body 
for embalming it. 

Parasitical. Growing out of, 
or living upon other bodies. 

Paratartaric Acid. (Uvic 
Acid.) An acid found in small pro¬ 
portion in the juice of grapes. 

Parenchyma. The soft, cellular 
tissue of plants or glandular organs. 


Paries. (L.) A wall. 

Parietal. Pertaining to the 
side or wall. 

Parietes. (L.) Walls. 

Parosmia. Perversion of smell. 

Parotid. Near the ear; name 
of salivary glands. 

Parotitis. The mumps. 

. Paroxysm. A fit of disease re¬ 
curring periodically. 

Parturition. Delivery of young. 

Partus. (L.) Labor. 

Parulis. Gum-boil. 

Passive. The opposite of active. 

Pastil. ) A small, aromatic 

Pastille, j cone to be burned for 
cleansing and scenting the air of a 
room. 

Patella. The knee-pan. 

Patent . Apparent; manifest. 

Pathema. (G.) Passion; affec¬ 
tion. 

Patheticus. (L.) Relating to 
the passions. 

Pathogenesis. Production of 
disease. 

Pathogenetic . Disease-produc¬ 
ing. 

Pathogenic. Belongingto path¬ 
ogeny . 

Pathogeny. That part of path¬ 
ology which relates to the origin and 
development of disease. 

Pathognomic. Indicative of dis¬ 
ease . 

Pathological Anatomy. Mor¬ 
bid anatomy. 

Pathos. (G.) Disease; affection. 

Pathology. The consideration 
of diseases. 

Patulous. Spreading open.- 

Pb. Symbol for lead. (Plum¬ 
bum.) 

Pd. Symbol for palladium. 

Pearl Ash . A carbonate of pot- 
assa, obtained by calcining potash. 

Peat Charcoal. A disinfectant 
obtained by charring peat. 

Pectinalis. A muscle of the 
thigh. 

Pectinated. Shaped like comb 
teeth. 






442 


LEXICON. 


Pectoral. Pertaining to the 
breast. 

Pel agra. Elephantiasis. 

Pelargonic Acid . An acid, 
most conveniently formed by the ac¬ 
tion of nitric acid on oil of rue. (See 
page 263.) 

Pellicle. A thin skin or.crust. 

Pellis. (L.) The skin. 

Pelvis. The open, bony struc¬ 
ture at the lower extremity of the 
trunk, inclosing the internal urinal 
and genital organs. 

Pemmican. An alimentary sub¬ 
stance, containing much nutriment 
in a small bulk, made by mixing 
equal weights of buffalo meat and 
buffalo tallow. Thus prepared, pem- 
mican may be kept almost indefi¬ 
nitely. 

Pendulous. Hanging down. 

Penis. The male organ of gene¬ 
ration. 

Penne’s Antiseptic Liquid. A 
preparation produced by adding two 
parts of hydrobromic acid to eight 
parts of pure carbolic acid, contained 
in a porcelain capsule placed on a 
sand or steam bath. 

Pepsin. } The distinct organic 

Pepsine. f principle of the gas¬ 
tric juice. 

Peptic. Digestive. 

Peptone . (See page 181.) 

Per. A prefix used in chemical 
composition to denote excess, or that 
the substance first mentioned in the 
name of the compound enters in 
a greater proportion than the other. 

Peracute. Very sharp. 

Perchlorate. A compound of 
perchloric acid and a base. 

Perchloric Acid. An acid con¬ 
taining two equivalents of chlorine 
to seven of oxygen. 

Perchloride of Carbon. An 
erroneous name applied to chloro¬ 
form from the impression prevalent, 
when first obtained, that it consisted 
exclusively of chlorine and carbon. 

Perchloride of Iron. Ferric 
Chloride. (See Antiseptics.) 


Perchloride of Mercury. Cor¬ 
rosive Sublimate. (See Antiseptics.) 

Perchloride of Thallium. A 
compound isomorphous with the al¬ 
kaline perchlorides, which it equals 
in stability. It is slightly soluble in 
alcohol, and may be heated to near¬ 
ly the boiling-point of mercury with¬ 
out decomposition. 

Perchromic Acid. An acid con¬ 
sisting of two equivalents of chrome 
and seven of oxygen. 

Percolation. The act or pro¬ 
cess of percolating, or filtering, or of 
passing through small interstices, as 
liquor through any substance. 

Percussion. Physical examina¬ 
tion of a cavity by striking its walls. 

Pericardium. The sac contain¬ 
ing the heart. 

Perichondrium. The mem¬ 
brane covering the cartilages. 

Pericranium. The membrane 
investing the skull. 

Perineal. Relating to the per¬ 
ineum . 

Perineum. The part between 
the anus and organs of generation. 

Period. A stated time. 

Periodicity. Regularity of re¬ 
currence. 

Periosteum. Membrane invest¬ 
ing the bones. 

Periphery. The circumference. 

Peripyemia. A collection of pus. 

Peristaltic. A term applied to 
the peculiar movement of the intes¬ 
tines, like that of a worm in its 
progress; hence also called vermicu¬ 
lar motion. 

Peristroma. The mucus coat of 
the intestines. 

Peritoneal Sac. The perito¬ 
neum. 

Peritoneum. The serous mem¬ 
brane lining the abdomen, and en¬ 
veloping its organs. 

Peritonitis. Inflammation of 
the peritoneum. 

Permanganate of Potash. (See 
Pot as see Permanganas .) 

Peroneal. Relating to the fibula. 






LEXICON. 


443 


Peroxide. That oxide of a given 
base which contains the greatest 
quantity of oxygen. 

Peroxide of Hydrogen. (See 
Hydrogen Peroxide and Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Persulphate of Iron. (Mon- 
sel’s.) A salt of iron consisting of 
two equivalents of the sesquioxide of 
iron and five of sulphuric acid. 

Perturbation. Disturbance. 

Pertussis. Whooping-cough. 

Perversion. A morbid change. 

Pervigilium. (L.) Want of 
sleep. 

Pes. (L.) The foot. 

Pessary. An instrument to sup¬ 
port the womb. 

Petinin. An organic base con¬ 
tained in Dippel’s animal oil. 

Petrifaction . A changing into 
stone. 

Petroleum. (Rock Oil.) Petro¬ 
leum is a term applied to all the na¬ 
tive liquid substances belonging to 
the class of bitumens. They exist 
in nature either isolated or combined 
with carbon, in various proportions, 
forming the different kinds of bitu¬ 
minous coal. 

Petrous. Stony; hard. 

Phalanges. Bones of the fingers 


and toes. 

Phantasy. Morbid imagination. 

"1 Pertaining 
to the art of 


Pharmaceutic . 
Pharmaceutical. 


p r e p a ring 
medicines. 

Pharmacon. A medicine. 

Pharmacopceia. A standard 
book or treatise describing the pre¬ 
parations of the several kinds of 
medicines which are regarded as offi¬ 


cial. 

Pharmacy. The art of preparing 
and combining medicines. 

Pharyngeal. Belonging to the 


pharynx. 

Pharyngitis. Inflammation of 
the pharynx. 

Pharyngotomy. Cutting into 


pharynx. 


Pharynx. The top of the 
oesophagus. 

Phenate. A salt formed by the 
solution of a phenol in an alkali. 

Phene. (See Benzine.) 

Piienic Acid. An old name for 
carbolic acid. (See Antiseptics.) 

Phenic Acid Vinegar. A com¬ 
pound recommended as a disinfect¬ 
ant against pestilence, consisting of 
acetic acid, camphor and phenic 
acid. 

Phenol. (See Carbolic Acid.) 

Phenomenon. (Plural, Phenom¬ 
ena.) A remarkable or wonderful 
occurrence. 

Phenyl. A compound radical, 
whose hydrated oxide constitutes 
carbolic acid. Formula (C 6 H5) 1 . 

Phenylic Acid. (See Carbolic 
Acid and Antiseptics.) 

Phenylic Alcohol. (See Phe¬ 
nic Acid.) 

Philoprogenitiveness. Love of 
chilren. 

Phlebitis. Inflammation of the 
veins. 

Phlebotomy. Bleeding from a 
vein. 

Phlegm. Mucus from the bron¬ 
chial tubes. 

Phlegmasia. Inflammations. 

Phlegmon. A boil. 

Phlogistic. Inflammatory. 

Phlogiston. An imaginary prin¬ 
ciple by which certain chemists ac¬ 
counted for the phenomena of com¬ 
bustion. 

Phonica. Diseases of the organs 
of speech. 

Phosgene. Generating light; 
name given to a certain gas gener¬ 
ated by the action of sunlight or 
bright daylight on chlorine and car¬ 
bonic acid. 

Phosphate. A salt formed by 
a combination of phosphoric acid 
with a salifiable base. 

Phosphate of Iron. (See Ferri 
Pliosphas .) 

Phosphate of Lime, Precipi¬ 
tated. (See Calais Pliosphas Pre- 







444 


LEXICON. 


cipitata and Chemistry of the Hu¬ 
man Body.) 

Phosphate of Potassa. (See 
Chemistry of the Human body) 

Phosphite. A salt formed by the 
combination of phosphorous acid 
with a salifiable base. 

Phosphoglyceric Acid. An 
acid obtained by the action of bary¬ 
ta water on lecithin, a constituent of 
the bile. 

Phosphoretted Hydrogen. (See 
Phospliuretted Hydrogen.) 

Phosphoric Acid. (Dimeta.) An 
acid obtained from bones. Symbol 

h 3 po 4 . 

Phosphorous Acid. An acid 
formed by the treating of oxidized 
phosphorous with water. Symbol 
H3PO3. 

Phosphorus. One of the ele¬ 
ments. (See page 111.) 

Phosphuret. Combination of 
phosphorus with a metal. 

Phospiiuretted Hydrogen. 
( Phosphoretted Hydrogen. ) ( See 
page 221.) 

Piiotagene. An empyreumatic 
oil obtained from the tar of turf, bi¬ 
tuminous coal, etc., thin, and of 
great illuminating power. 

Photophobia. (G.) Dread of 
light. 

Phrenic. Pertaining to the dia- 
ph ragm. 

Phrenitis. Inflammation of the 
brain. 

Phthisis. Wasting. 

Phthisis Pulmonalis. Con¬ 
sumption of the lungs. 

Phymosis. Contraction of the 
prepuce. 

Physics. Science of natural phe¬ 
nomena. 

Physiology. The science which 
treats of the organs of the body and 
their functions. 

Pial. Relating to the Pia 
Mater. 

Pia Mater. (L.) A thin mem¬ 
brane investing the brain. 

Picamar. A colorless, odorous 


liquid constituting the bitter princi¬ 
ple of rectified oil of tar. 

Pickle. A strong brine. 

Picolin. A colorless liquid, hav¬ 
ing the odor of ammonia and pep¬ 
per, and a caustic taste, obtained 
from DippePs animal oil. 

Picrate of Potassa. A salt 
formed by saturating picric acid with 
hydrate of potassa. 

Picric Acid. (See Carbazotic 
Acid.) 

Picromel. A characteristic prin¬ 
ciple of bile. 

Pigment. A paint or varnish. 

Pigmentum Nigrum. (L.) Black 
pigment upon the choroid coat of the 
eye. 

Piles. Tumors or enlarged veins 
in the neighborhood of the anus. 

Pilus. Hair. 

Pimelosis. Fatty degeneration 
of the liver. 

Pineal Gland. A body in the 
brain about the size of a pea, sup¬ 
posed by Descartes to be the seat of 
the soul. 

Piney. A fatty substance re¬ 
sembling tallow, obtained from an 
East Indian plant. 

Pint. The eighth part of a gal¬ 
lon. 

Pinus. (L.) The pine tree. 

Pinus Cedrus. The source of 
cedria. 

Pinus Sylvestris. The source 
of European turpentine. 

Pipette. A small glass tube with 
a bulb in the middle, used for trans¬ 
ferring fluids. 

Pitch. ( Pix .) The product left 
after the evaporation of tar. It has 
been used in various cutaneous dis¬ 


eases and is antiseptic. 

Pitch, Burgundy. (See Bur¬ 
gundy Pitch.) 

Pitch, Canada. (See Canada 
Pitch. 

Pith. The soft and spongy sub¬ 
stance in the center of many plants 
and trees; the medulla. 

Pituita. (L.) Phlegm. 



LEXICON. 


445 


Pituitary Membrane. The lin¬ 
ing of the nostrils. 

Pix Arida. [ ( See Pitch -> 

Fix Burgundica. (See Bur¬ 
gundy Pitch.) 

Pix Liquida. (Tar.) The im¬ 
pure turpentine, procured by burn¬ 
ing the wood of Pinuspalustris, and 
other species of pine. 

Pix Nigra. (L.) (See Pitch.) 

Placenta. The structure nour¬ 
ishing the fetus in the womb dur¬ 
ing gestation. 

Plague. A pestilential fever, pre¬ 
vailing in Egypt and other eastern 
countries. 

Planta. (L.) The sole of the 
foot. 

Plantar. Belonging to the sole 
of the foot. 

Plasma. (Liquor Sanguinis.) The 
fluid part of the blood. 

Plaster of Paris. (See Calcis 
Sulphas .) 

Plastic.. Forming; molding. 

Plastic Surgery. Operations for 
the removal of deformities. 

Platinum . A white-colored, un- 
tarnishable metal, very, infusible, 
and insoluble in ordinary acids. It 
is generally found alloyed with other 
metals. Symbol, Pt. 

Platinum Black . Metallic plati¬ 
num in the form of a black powder 
obtained by passing an electric cur¬ 
rent through the chloride. 

Platinum Sponge. (Spongy 
Platinum.) A metallic platinum in 
the form of a porous, dull-brown 
mass, used in chemical experiments. 

Plethora. Excessive fullness. 

Pleura. The serous lining of 
thorax, covering the thoracic vis¬ 
cera. 

Pleuralgia. Pain in the side. 

Pleurisy. ) Inflammation of 

Pleuritis. f the pleura. 

Pleuro-pneumonia. A combi¬ 
nation of pleurisy and pneumonia. 

Pleximeter. A flat plate used 
in percussion of the chest. 


Plexus. (L.) A net-work*of 
nerves or vessels. 

Plica. (L.) A fold. 

Plugging. Introduction of lint 
or some other substance to stop hem¬ 
orrhage. 

Plumbago. (See Black Lead.) 

Plumbate of Soda. A deodori¬ 
zer for petroleum oils, obtained by 
boiling litharge with caustic soda. 

Plumbi Acetas. (L.) Acetate 
of lead. (See Antiseptics.) 

Plumbi Carbonas. Carbonate 
of lead. (See Antiseptics.) 

Plumbi Nitras. Nitrate of 
lead. A salt obtained by treating 
litharge with nitric acid. 

Plumbum. (L.) Lead. 

Plltviometer. A rain-guage. 

Pneuma. (G.) Air. 

Pneumatic. Pertaining to air 
or gaseous fluid. 

Pneumatica. Diseases of the 
respiratory organs. 

Pneumatics. The science of 
elastic fluids. 

Pneumatometer. An instrument 
for measuring the amount of air in¬ 
haled at a single breath. 

Pneumatosis. A windy swell- 
in O’ 

Pneumic. Belonging to the 
lungs. 

Pneumogastric. Pertaining to 
the lungs and stomach. 

Pneumonaemia . Congestion of 
blood in the lungs. 

Pneumonia . Inflammation of 
the lungs. 

Pneumonic. Pertaining to the 
lungs ; pulmonary. 

Pneumothorax. An accumula¬ 
tion of air in the chest. 

Pock. A pustule or variola. 

Poculiform . Cup-shaped. 

Podagra. Gout in the joints of 
the foot. 

Podagric. Pertaining to gout. 

Podalgia. Pain in the foot. 

Poda rthritis . Inflammation of 
the joints of the foot. 

Pointing of an Abscess. The 


< 




440 


LEXICON. 


comical softisli projection, of alight- 1 
yellow color, observable in an ab¬ 
scess when nearly ready to discharge. 

Poison. A substance which, 
when introduced into the animal 
system, causes such a change in the 
animal economy as to produce dis¬ 
ease or death. 

Poliosis. Premature grayness. 

Pollex. (L.) The thumb; the 
great toe. 

Polybasic. Having, or being 
combined with several bases. 

Polychromatic. Many-colored. 

Polycystic. Consisting of many 
cysts. 

Polydactylism. The state of 
having a superfluous finger or toe. 

Polydipsia. Excessive thirst. 

Polygalactia. Excessive secre¬ 
tion of milk. 

Polymerism. The principle ac¬ 
cording to which a diversity of 
compounds exist under a common 
formula. 

Polyopia. Multiple vision. 

Polyphagia. Voracity. 

Polypiiarmacia. The adminis¬ 
tration of too many medicines. 

Polypus. A variety of tumor 
found in the nose, uterus or vagina. 

Polysarcous. Obese. 

Pomatum. A perfumed ointment 
for the hair. 

Pomiform. Having the shape of 
an apple. 

Pomum. (L.) An apple. 

Pomum Ad ami. (L.) AdanPs 
Apple. The angular projection on 
the fore part of the neck, caused by 
the anterior part of the thyroid car¬ 
tilage. 

Ponderable. That which can be 
weighed. 

Pons. (L.) Abridge. 

Poples. (L.) The back part of 
the knee joint. 

Pop litmus. (L.) Popliteal . 
The name of a muscle inserted into 
the superior triangular surface at 
the back of the tibia, and which 
bends the thigh and leg. 


Popliteal. Pertaining to the 
ham. 

Popliteal Artery. A contin¬ 
uation of the femoral artery which 
descends a little obliquely outward 
into the hollow of the ham, and ex¬ 
tends from the commencement of 
the lower third of the thigh to the * 
end of the upper quarter of the leg. 

Pore. A small opening at the 
end of a vessel on the surface of an 
organized body ; also a small inter¬ 
stice between the particles of mat¬ 
ter which compose bodies. 

Porosity. The property of hav¬ 
ing pores. 

Porous. Having pores, or full of 
pores. 

Porta. (L.) A door ; agate. 

Post Mortem. (L.) " After 
death ; a term applied to the exam¬ 
ination of a dead body. 

Posture. Position of the body. 

Potable. Fit to drink. 

Potash. (Potassa.) The monox¬ 
ide of potassium. It is a powerful 
alkali and exists in various states of 
purity. 

Potassa. (See Potash.) 

Potassa Alum. (See Alumina 
and Ammonia Sulphate.) 

Potassa Hydriodate. An ob¬ 
solete name for iodide of potassium. 

Potassa Hypermanganate. (See 
Potassce Permanganas .) 

Potassa Carbonate Pure. (See 
Carbonate of Potassa, and Antisep¬ 
tics,) 

Potassa Quadroxalate. Essen¬ 
tial Salt of Lemons. (See Poisons.) 

Potassa Sesquicarbonate. (See 
Antiseptics.) 

Potassa Silicate. (Silicate of 
Potassa.) A salt known in com¬ 
merce as soluble glass . 

Potassa Permanganas. (Per¬ 
manganate of Potash.) A powerful 
disinfectant occurring in the form 
of slender purplish crystals. (See 
Antiseptics.) 

Potassium. One of the metallic 
elements. (See page 111.) 






LEXICON. 


447 


Potato Oil, Spirit of. (See 
Alcohol, Amylic.) 

Potential. Powerful. 

Potion. A medicine to be swal¬ 
lowed in fluid form. 

Potomania. (Mania a Potu.) 
Drink madness. 

Pound. A legal standard of 
weight; the troy pound contains 12 
ounces, the avoirdupois, 16 ; so that 
144 pounds avoirdupois equal 175 
pounds troy. 

PouparPs Ligament. The cru¬ 
ral arch. 

Practitioner. A physician who 
devotes himself to the practice of 
medicine. 

Praecordia. (L.) The fore part 
of the thoracic region. 

Precipitant. Casting down ; ap¬ 
plied to the substance by the addi¬ 
tion of which a precipitate is formed. 

Precipitate. T h e substance 
which sinks down in the process of 
precipitation. 

Precipitation. The act of throw¬ 
ing to the bottom of a vessel any 
substance held in solution. 

Precocious. Premature. 

Precursor. A forerunner. 

Predisposing. A term applied 
to a condition of body which ren¬ 
ders a person liable to disease. 

Predorsal. In front of the spine. 

Pregnancy. The state of being 
with child. 

Pregnant. With child. 

Prehension. Seizing. 

Premonitory. Warning before¬ 
hand . 

Prepuce. The cutaneous fold 
which covers the glans penis. 

Preputial. Pertaining to the 
prepuce. 

Presbyopia. Far-sightedness. 

Prescription. A recipe. 

Primary. Original; principal. 

Principle. An original element 
contained in other substances from 
which it may be obtained by analysis. 

Principle, Proximate. (See 
Proximate Principle. 


Probe. An instrument for try¬ 
ing the depth, extent and direction 
of wounds, etc. 

Probing. Examining with the 
probe. 

Process. A projecting point or 
eminence of a hone; a protuberance. 

Procidentia. (L.) The falling 
down of some part. 

Proclivity. Disposition ; ten¬ 
dency. 

Proctagra. Pain at the anus. 

Profound. Deep. 

Profuse. Abundant. 

Prognosis. The forecasting of a 
disease, drawn from a consideration 
of its signs and symptoms. 

Prolapsus. (L.) A protrusion 
and falling down. 

Prolific. Fertile. 

Prominence. A projection. 

Proof Spirit. A spirit made by 
mixing five parts of alcohol with 
three parts of distilled water. 

Proof Vinegar. The strongest 
kind of vinegar, containing five per 
cent of acetic acid. 

Propagation. Reproduction. 

Property. Quality; attribute. 

Prophylactic. Preserving health 
or preventing disease. 

Propionic Acid. (Seepage 261.) 

Propyl. A hydrocarbon radical 
(C.H 7 )\ 

Propylamine. (See page 266.) 

Prostate Gland. The gland 
below the neck of the bladder. 

Prostatic. Pertaining to the 
prostate gland. 

Prostatitis. Inflammation of the 
prostate gland. 

Prostration. Extreme feeble¬ 
ness or exhaustion. 

Protagon. Aphosphoretted, fatty 
compound, which is supposed to he 
the chief constituent of nervous tis¬ 
sue. (See Lecithin.) 

Protein. A compound of oxy¬ 
gen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, 
forming the basis of the most im¬ 
portant constituents of animal fibrin, 
albumen, etc. 





448 


LEXICON. 


Proto. A prefix denoting the 
first degree of combination. 

Protoplasm. The nitrogenous 
substance from which the cell-nuc¬ 
leus is formed. 

Protosalt. A salt containing a 
metallic protoxide. 

Protosulphate. A compound 
of sulphuric acid with a protoxide. 

Protoxide. When there are sev¬ 
eral oxides of the same substance, 
the protoxide is that which is first 
in the scale, or which has the small¬ 
est quantity of oxygen. 

Protoxide of Nitrogen. (See 
Nitrous Oxide.) 

Proximate Principles. Those 
distinct compounds which exist ready 
formed in animals and vegetables. 
(See p. 154.) 

Prurient. Itching. 

Prurigo. (L.) The itch. 

Pruritus. (L.) Itching. 

Prussiate. A compound of prus¬ 
sic acid with a base. 

Prussic Acid. Hydrocyanic acid ; 
a violent poison. 

Pseudo. (G.) A prefix signifying 
false. 

Pseudoblepsia. False vision. 

Psoae. Two pairs of muscles of 
the loins. 

Psora. (G.) The itch. 

Psoriasis. A cutaneous disease, 
characterized by a rough, scaly cu¬ 
ticle. 

Psoric. Pertaining to the itch. 

Psychical. Pertaining to the in¬ 
tellect. 

Psychosis. Affection of the 
mind. 

Ptarmic. Causing to sneeze. 

Ptoamines. (Septicene.) Alka¬ 
loids obtained from animal tissues in 
complete or incipient putrefaction. 

Ptosis. A falling. 

Ptyalagogue. Increasing the 
flow of saliva. 

Ptyalin. A principle peculiar to 
saliva, upon which its faint sickly 
odor depends. It has the property 
of turning starch into sugar. 


Puberty. The marriageable age. 

Pubes. (L.) The external part of 
the generative region. 

Pubescence. Fine hair or down. 

Pubic. Pertaining to the pubes. 

Pudenda. (L.) Genital organs. 

Puerile. Relating to childhood. 

Puerperal. Connected with 
child-bearing. 

Puerperal Feyer. A severe dis¬ 
ease sometimes occurring soon after 
child-birth. 

Pulmonary. Pertaining to the 
lungs. 

Pulmonic. Pulmonary. 

Pulmonitis. Inflammation of the 
lungs. 

Pulsation. A throbbing sensa¬ 
tion. 

Pulse. The beating of the ar¬ 
teries, following the contractile ac¬ 
tion of the heart. 

Pulsimeter. An instrument for 
measuring the force or frequency of 
the pulse. 

Pulverize. To reduce to fine 
powder. 

Pulvis. (L. Plural, Pulveres.) 
A jmwder. 

Pumice. A porous volcanic pro¬ 
duct, consisting chiefly of silica and 
alumina. 

Pumiciform. Resembling pum¬ 
ice-stone. 

Puncture. A perforation made 
by a pointed instrument. 

Pungent. Acute; sharp; pene¬ 
trating. 

Punk. A species of fungus used 
as tinder. 

Pupil. The round, black open¬ 
ing in the center of the iris. 

Pure. Separate from all extrane¬ 
ous matter. 

Purgative. Cathartic. 

Puriform. Resembling pus. 

Purkinje, Gray' Substance of. 
(See page 58.) 

Purpurate. A compound of pur¬ 
puric acid with a base. 

Purpuric Acid. An acid having 
a purple color, formed by the action 









LEXICON. 


44 !) 


of nitric acid upon the litliic or uric 
acid. 

Purulent. Consisting of pus. 

Pus. A bland, cream-like fluid 
found in abscesses, or on the surface 
of sores; matter. 

Pustulate. Having pustules. 

Pustule. A vesicle of the skin 
containing pus. 

Putrefaction. The spontaneous 
decomposition of animal or vegetable 
matter. 

Putridity. The first and most 
poisonous stage of putrefaction. 

Py.emia. Purulent blood. Blood- 
poisoning. 

Pyjemic. Relating to pyaemia. 

Pyarthrosis. Suppuration of a 
joint. 

Pyelitis. Inflammation of the 
pelvis of the kidney. 

Pyemia. (See Pyaemia.) 

Pyemic. (See Pyaemic.) 

Pyloric. Pertaining to the py¬ 
lorus. 

Pylorus. The inferior aperture 
of the stomach, at the commence¬ 
ment of the duodenum. 

Pyogenesis. The secretion of 

pus. 

Pyogenic. Secreting pus. 

Pyothorax. A collection of pus 
in the thorax. 

Pyre. A structure of firewood, 
upon which the bodies of the dead 
were cremated. 

Pyrene. A volatile oil obtained 
from coal tar. 

Pyretic. Pertaining to fever. 

Pyrexia. The state of fever. 

Pyridina. An artificial alkaloid 
obtained by the action of potassa 
upon cinchonia. 

Pyro. A prefix, denoting some 
quality or effect of heat. 

Pyro acetic Acid. Acetic acid 
exposed to the action of heat. 

Pyrogallic Acid. A bitter solid 
obtained by the distillation of gallic 
acid. 

Pyroligneous Acid. An acid 
obtained from the destructive distil- 

29 


lation of wood. It consists of acetic 
acid mixed with empyreumatic oil 
and bitumen, and possesses some 
antiseptic value. 

Pyroligneous Spirit. (See Al¬ 
cohol, Methylic.) 

Pyroligneous Vinegar. (See 
Crude Pyroligneous Acid.) 

Pyrometer. An instrument for 
measuring very high degrees of heat. 

Pyrophosphoric Acid. A com¬ 
pound of phosphorus, oxygen, and 
water, obtained by heating ordinary 
phosphoric acid. 

Pyrosis. Water-brash, heart burn. 

Pyrotartrate. A salt formed 
by the union of pyrotartaric acid 
with some base. 

Pyrouric Acid. An acid ob¬ 
tained by distilling uric acid. 

Pyroxylic. Obtained by the de¬ 
structive distillation of wood. 

Pyroxylin. Gun-cotton. 

Pyrrol. A volatile principle ob¬ 
tained from coal-tar. 

Pyrrolin. An artificial alkaloid 
formed by the action of potassa on 
cinchonia. 

Pyuria. The emission of puru¬ 
lent urine. 

Q. 

Quack. A charlatan; a pretender 
to medical skill. 

Quadrate. Of a square figure; 
a name applied to certain muscles on 
account of their shape. 

Quadribasic. Having four parts 
of base to one of acid. 

Quadrihydrated Nitric Acid. 
Nitric acid of the specific gravity 
1.42. It contains one equivalent of 
dry acid, and four of water. 

Quadroxide. An oxide in which 
four equivalents of oxygen are com¬ 
bined with one equivalent of some 
other element. 

Qualitative Analysis. | 

Quantitative Analysis, f ' 
Analysis.) 



450 


LEXICON. 


Quantum Sufficit. Q. S. (L.) 
A sufficient quantity. 

Quart. The fourth part of a 
gallon. 

Quickening. The period of 
gestation when the movement of the 
fetus is first perceptible. 

Quicklime. (Calx vivum .) Un¬ 
slaked, or unquenched lime. 

Quicksilver. (See Mercury.) 

Quinia. ) An alkaloid, ob- 

Quinine. j tained from various 
species of Cinchonia. (See Anti¬ 
septics.) 

Quintessence. Concentrated es¬ 
sence. 

Q. V. (Quantum vis. L.) As 
much as you will. 

R. 

R. (L. Recipe, “take.”) 

Rabid. Affected with hydropho¬ 
bia. 

Rachitis. (See Rickets.) 

Radiating. Diverging or spread- 
ing from a common point. 

Radical. See page 122. A neg¬ 
ative combined with hydroxyl, 
which is regarded as the acidifying 
principle, form acids. 

Radical Vinegar. (See Acetic 
Acid, Glacial. 

Radius. One of the bones of the 
forearm. 

Radix. (L.) The root of a 
plant. 

• Ramification. The division of 
a stem into branches. 

Ramified. Divided into branches; 
branched. 

R amiform. Resembling a branch. 

Rancid. A term applied to fat, 
oil, or any greasy body which, by 
absorbing oxygen from the air, has 
acquired a strong odor and disagree¬ 
able taste. 

Rangoon Petroleum. ) (See 

Rangoon Tar. f Nap li - 

tha.) 

Raptus. (L.) A forcible seizure. 


Rare. Thin; subtile. 

Rash. Eruption on the skin. 

Rational. Conformable to rea¬ 
son, or a well-reasoned plan. 

Reaction. The state or process 
of applying a reagent, or test, for 
detecting the presence of certain 
other bodies. 

Reagent. A substance employed 
in chemical analysis to ascertain the 
quantity or quality of the compo¬ 
nent parts of bodies by reacting on 
their elements. A test. 

Realgar. “Red Arsenic.” (See 
Arsenic Bisulphuret.) 

Receiver. A vessel fitted to a 
retort; an alembic, or the like, for 
receiving the product of distillation. 

Recipe. A word constantly used 
in the abbreviated form, R., as the 
commencement of a medical ]n;e- 
scription. 

Recrudescence. A growing 
worse again. 

Recrystallization. The pro¬ 
cess of a second crystallization. 

Rectalgia. Pain of the Rectum. 

Rectified. Refined; purified by 
repeated distillations. 

Rectifed Spirit. (See Alcohol.) 

Rectitis. Inflammation of the 
rectum. 

Rectum. The last, nearly straight, 
portion of the great intestine, ter¬ 
minating at the anus. 

Rectus. Straight; a name given 
to certain muscles. 

Recuperation. Recovery. 

Recuperative. Tending to re¬ 
covery. 

Recurrence. A return. 

Recurvation. A bending back¬ 
ward. 

Red Charcoal. A charcoal in¬ 
termediate in its properties between 
wood and ordinary charcoal. 

Red Chromate of Potassa. (See 
Bichromate of Potassa.) 

Red Iodide of Mercury. (See 
Biniodide of Mercury.) 

Red Prussiate of Potash. (See 
Ferricyanide of Potassium.) 





LEXICON. 


451 


Reducing. (See Reduction.) 

Reduction. In surgery the re¬ 
turning a dislocated bone into its 
natural situation; in chemistry, the 
process by which metals changed or 
disguised by a union with other sub¬ 
stances, are restored to their metallic 
state. 

Refine. To reduce to a pure or 
fine state. 

Reflux. The return of the blood 
from the head, or lower part of the 
body, to the heart. 

Refractory. Difficult to melt, 
as platinum. 

Refrigerant. A remedy which 
cools the body or blood. 

Regelation. The act or process 
of freezing anew. 

Regeneration. The reproduc¬ 
tion of a part lost by disease, or in¬ 
jury* 

Regulus. A pure metal reduced 
from its ore. 

Regurgitation. A flowing back; 
flowing the wrong way. 

Reins. The kidneys. 

Relapse. The return of adisease 
which lias apparently ceased. 

Relaxtion. Want of tone. 

Renal. Belonging to to the kid¬ 
ney. 

Renitent. Resisting pressure. 

Rennet. A fluid made by infu¬ 
sing the rennet-bag, or inner mem¬ 
brane of a calf’s stomach, in hot 
water; it has the property of coagu¬ 
lating milk. 

Renovation. Renewal; restora¬ 
tion. 

Repellent. Driving back from 
the surface. 

Repletion. The state of being 
full. 

Repriments. Remedies for fluxes. 

Reservoir. A cavity or cistern, 
in which water or other liquid is ac¬ 
cumulated. 

Residual. Remaining behind. 

Resin. (Rosin.) A solid, in¬ 
flammable substance, of vegetable 
origin; a non-conductor of elec¬ 


tricity, and insoluble in water, but 
soluble in alcohol and essential oils. 
It is the residue after the distillation 
of volatile oil from turpentine. 

Resin Oil. An oleaginous prod¬ 
uct resulting from the destructive 
distillation of resin. 

Resina. (L.) Resin. 

Resina Nigra. (L.) (See Pitch.) 

Resolution. Analysis; decom¬ 
position. 

Resorcin. An unstable com¬ 
pound of iodine. 

Respiration. The function of 
breathing. 

Respiratory. Pertaining to res¬ 
piration. 

Resuscitation. The restoring 
to life of those apparently dead. 

Retardation. A stopping or 
hindering. 

Rete Mucosum. (L.) “Mucous 
network.” A mucous substance be¬ 
tween the derma and the epidermis, 
containing the coloring matter of the 
skin. 

Retention. The stoppage of any 
of the excretions, especially the 
urine. 

Reticular. Net-like. 

Reticulate. Having distinct 
veins or lines crossing like network. 

Reticulation. State of being 
reticulate*. 

Retina. The most internal 
membrane of the eye, being an ex¬ 
pansion of the optic nerve. 

Retinitis. Inflammation of the 
retina. 

Retort. A vessel made of glass, 
earthenware, or iron, for the purpose 
of distillation. 

Retraction. The shortening of 
a broken limb. 

Retrahens. (L.) Drawing back. 

Retrocession. A retrograde 
movement. 

Retropharyngeal. Pertaining 
to parts behind the pharynx. 

Retroversion. Backward dis¬ 
placement of organs. 

Riiachialgia. Pain in the spine. 





452 


LEXICON. 


Rhachis. (G.) The spine. 

Rhachitis. (See Rickets.) 

Rheumatism. Inflammation of 
the fibrous • tissues of the larger 
joints. 

Rhigolene, ) A variety of pe- 

Rhigolin. j troleum naphtha. 
It is obtained by distilling petro¬ 
leum, and separating the liquids of 
the least gravity, by redistillation, 
until a liquid is obtained which boils 
at about 70°. 

Rhinorrhagia. Bleeding from 
the nose. 

Rhodium. A hard, white, brittle 
metal discovered in 1803. 

Rhythm. A measured movement. 

Rickets. A disease of children, 
characterized by a large head, crooked 
spine and limbs, tumid abdomen and 
general debility. 

Ricinoleic Acid. An acid result¬ 
ing from the decomposition of sa¬ 
ponified castor oil by an acid. 

Rigidity. Stiffness. 

Rigor. A sudden coldness, with 
shivering. 

Rim A. A fissure or opening. 

Rinse. To wash lightly. 

Risus. (L.) Laughter. 

Roche alum. A rose-colored 
alum, which occurs in fragments 
about the size of an almoncb 

Rochelle Salt. Tartrate of pot¬ 
ash and soda. 

Rock Salt. The solid state in 
which salt is mined. 

Roller. A long bandage. 

Roll Sulphur. Brimstone. 

Roman Alum. The purest vari¬ 
ety of alum found in commerce. 

Roman Vitriol. (See Cupri Sul¬ 
phas. ) 

Rosae Oleum. (L.) (See Attar 
of Roses.) 

Roseola. Eruption of small red 
pimples. 

Rosin. (See Resin.) 

Rosolic Acid. An acid obtained 
by the oxidation of carbolic acid. 

Rotula. (L.) The knee-pan. 

Rotundus. (L.) Round. 


Rouge. A cosmetic powder pre¬ 
pared by mixing carmine with 
powdered talc. 

Rubefacients. Agents produc¬ 
ing redness of the skin. 

Rubeola. The measles. 

Rubidium. A rare metal. 

Ruga. (L. Plural, Rugm .) A 
wrinkle. 

Rugose. Wrinkled. 

Rum. A spirit distilled from cane 
juice. 

Rupture. The popular name for 
hernia. 

Ruthenium. A hard gray metal 
occurring in platinum ore. 

Ruysch, Membrane of. The in¬ 
ternal layer of the choroid coat of the 
eye. 

S. 

S. Symbol for sulphur. 

Sabulous. Sandy; gritty. 

Sac. A bag; a cyst. 

Saccharate. A salt formed by 
the union of saccharic acid with some 
base. 

Saccharine Fermentation. 
The change by which starch is con¬ 
verted into sugar. 

Saccharum. (L.) Sugar. 

Saccilarum Saturni. (L.) (See 
Acetate of Lead.) 

Sacculas. (L.) A little sac. 

Sacral. Pertaining to the sac¬ 
rum. 

Sacrum. The posterior bone of 
the pelvis, sustaining the spinal col¬ 
umn. 

Saint Anthony's Fire. Erysip¬ 
elas. 

Saint Vitus’ Dance. Chorea. 

Sal. (L.) Salt. 

Sal Aeratus. A salt between a 
carbonate and a bicarbonate of po- 
tassa. 

Sal Aeratus, Soda. Bicarbon¬ 
ate of soda, prepared in breweries by 
placing the carbonate in vessels over 
the fermenting beer in the vats. 




453 


% 


LEX I COX. 


Sal Alembroth. A double salt, 
consisting of the chlorides of am¬ 
monia and mercury. (See Antisep¬ 
tics.) 

Sal Ammoniac. (See Ammonia 
Hydrochlorate.) 

Sal Diureticus. Acetate of po- 
tassa. 

Sal Enixum. The sulphate of 
potassa left after the preparation of 
nitric acid from saltpetre. 

Sal Prunelle. Fused nitrate 
of potassa cast into molds or in 
cakes. 

Sal Rochelle. Rochelle salt. 

Sal Seignette. Rochelle salt. 

Sal Soda. (See Carbonate of 
Soda.) 

Sal Volatile. Volatile salt. 

Salicin. A crystalline princijfle 
obtained from willow bark. 

Salicon. Carbolic acid. 

Salicyl. A compound radical 
containing carbon, hydrogen and 
oxygen. 

Salicylic Acid. An acid obtain¬ 
ed from phenol, having the formula 

c 7 h 6 0 3 . 

Salicylous Acid. A volatile, 
oily liquid, obtained by distilling 
salicin with bichromate of potassa 
and sulphuric acid. 

Salifiable. Capable of combin¬ 
ing with an acid to form a salt. 

Salify. To form into a salt, as 
a base. 

Saline. Consisting of or contain¬ 
ing salt. 

Saliva. The spittle. 

Salivary. Pertaining to the 
saliva. 

Salivation. A continuous, un¬ 
natural How of the saliva. 

Salogen. A substance which 
forms a haloid salt with a metal. 

Salt. Chemicallv, a combination 
of an acid with a base, producing a 
compound different from either con¬ 
stituent. (See Chemistry of the Hu¬ 
man Body.) Popularly the word salt 
refers to common salt, or chloride of 
sodium, a substance largely contain- 


j ed in sea-water, and also found in 
the earth as a mineral. 

Salt On Corpses. In Northum¬ 
berland, England, it was customary 
to place salt in a saucer upon the 
dead. 

Salt of Lemons. Binoxalate of 
potassa. 

Salt of Sorrel. (See Poisons.) 

Salt of Tartar. A name ap¬ 
plied to the pure forms of carbonate 
of potassa. 

Saltpetre. (See Nitrate of Po- 
j tassa and Antiseptics.) 

Sa lubrious. Favorable to health. 

Sanative. Curative. 

Sand. (See Antiseptics.) 

Sand Bath. A mode of apply¬ 
ing heathy interposing sand between 
the lire and the vessel. 

Sanguification . Conversion of 
chyle into blood. 

Sanguifluxars. (L.) Hemor¬ 
rhage . 

Sanguineous. Bloody. 

Sanguis. (L.) Blood. 

Sanguis Draconis. (L.) (See 
Dragon’s blood.) 

Saphena. A vein of the leg. 

Sapid. Possessing taste. 

Sapidity. Savor. 

Sapo. (Soap.) A compound of one 
or more of the fatty acids with alka¬ 
lies or oxides: Castile soap is a hard, 
mottled soap made of olive oil and 
soda; insoluble soap is an insoluble 
compound of a metallic oxide with a 
fatty substance, not possessing deter¬ 
gent qualities; soft soap is a viscid 
semi-fluid potash soap, having an ex¬ 
cess of alkali; hard soap is made 
with olive oil and soda, or from tal¬ 
low and caustic soda. 

Saponaceous. Resembling soap. 

Saponification. Turning into 
soap. 

Sarcocele. Cancer of the testicle. 

Sarcolactic Acid. One of the 
constituents of ox-bile. 

Sarcolemma. The sheath which 
surrounds the Abrils of muscle that 
make a fiber. 









454 


LEXICON. 


Sarcophagus. A stone coffin, 
originally made from a kind of lime¬ 
stone which consumed the flesh 
within a few weeks, hence the name 
sarcophagus, or “ flesh-eater/' 

Sarcosine. (Methyl-glycocol.) A 
substance obtained from creatin by 
the action of barium hydrate. It is 
very soluble, and crystallizes in 
colorless prisms. 

Sarcosis. A fleshy tumor. 

Sarkosina. (See Sarcosine.) 

Sartorius. (L.) The “tailor’s 
muscle ” of the thigh, by which the 
legs are crossed. 

Satiety. Fullness accompanied 
with distaste for food. 

Saturate. To cause to become 
completely penetrated or impreg¬ 
nated . To infuse into until no more 
can be received. 

Saturation. The combination 
of bodies in such proportions as to 
completely satisfy their combining 
affinities. 

Saturn. Alchemic name for the 
metal lead. 

Saturnine. Caused by or con¬ 
taining lead. 

Saturnismus. Lead-poisoning. 

Satyriasis. Morbid sexual desire 
in men. 

Sb. Symbol for antimony. {Sti¬ 
bium. ) 

Scab. A hard covering of ulcers. 

Scabies. (L.) The itqh. 

Scald Head. An eruption of 
the scalp. 

Scalp. The integuments of the 
skull. 

Scalpel. A surgeon's small knife. 

Sc A ph A. (L.) The cavity of the 
external ear. 

Scapula . The shoulder-blade. 

Scapular. Pertaining to the 
scapula. 

Scarf Skin. The cuticle, or 
epidermis. 

"Scarification. The making of 
light incisions. 

Scarificator. An instrument 
for making light incisions. 


Scarlatina. The scarlet fever. 

Schiedam. Holland gin, named 
from the place of manufacture. 

Schizomycetes Bacteria with in¬ 
dependent power of motion toward 
light and air. 

Schnapps. Holland gin. 

Sciatic . Pertaining to the low r er 
bone of the pelvis. 

Sciatica. Neuralgia of the sci¬ 
atic nerve. 

Scintillation. The bright ap¬ 
pearance of sparks. 

Scirrhous. Pertaining to scirrhus. 

Scirrhus. A hard tumor. 

Sclerotic. Hard; tough. 

Sclerotic Coat of the Eye. The 
hard, fibrous membrane of the eye, 
which, with the cornea forms the 
external coat; sometimes called the 
“white of the eye.” 

Sclerotitis. Inflammation of 
the sclerotic coat. 

Scoliosis. Rickets. 

Scorbutic. Pertaining to, or 
affected with scurvy. 

Scorbutus. (Li) The scurvy. 

Scrofula. “The king’s evil;” 
a disease characterized by chronic 
swelling of the lymphatic glands. 

Scrotal. Pertaining to the 
scrotum. 

Scrotum. The bag containing 
the testicles. 

Scrotocele. Hernia in the scro¬ 
tum . 

Scruple. Twenty grains; the 
third part of a drachm. 

Scutiform. Shaped like a shield. 

Se. Symbol for selenium. 

Searching. Sounding the blad¬ 
der. 

Sear Cloth. (See Cere Cloth.) 

Sea Salt. (See Chloride of 
Sodium.) 

Sebaceous. Suet-like. 

Sebacic Acid. An acid obtained 
from fat. 

Debate. A compound of sebacic 
acid with a base. 

Secernent. Secretory. 

Secondary. A term applied to 





LEXICON. 


455 


symptoms indirectly caused by the 
diseases with which they are associ¬ 
ated. 

Secundum Artem. (L.) Accord¬ 
ing to the rules of art; scientifically. 

Sedative. Allaying excitement 
or irritability. 

Sediment. A solid deposit from 
a fluid. 

Sedlitz Powders. A combin¬ 
ation of Rochelle salts and super¬ 
carbonate of soda with tartaric acid. 

Seignette's Salt. Rochelle 
salt. 

Seriasis. Sunstroke. 

Sel de Boutigny. (F.) (See 
Calomel Iodides.) 

Seleniate. A salt formed by 
the combination of selenic acid with 
some base. 

Selenide. A compound of sel¬ 
enium with a metal, or some other 
body which may take the place of a 
metal. 

Selenite. A compound of sel- 
enious acid with a base. 

Selenium. A rare, non-metallic 
element resembling sulphur. 

Seleniuret. A compound of 
selenium with some other element. 

Seleniuretted. Impregnated 
with selenium. 

Semen. (L.) Seed. 

Semi. A prefix, signifying half. 

Semi Fluid. | Half, or imper- 

Semi Liquid, j fectly fluid. 

Semi Membranosus. A muscle 
of the thigh. 

Seminal. Belonging to seed. 

Seminiferous. (L.) A term 
applied to the vessels which secret 
and convey the seminal fluid. 

Semi-Normal Solution. One 
containing half a molecular weight 
in gramme's dissolved in one litre of 
water. 

Semivitrified. Half, or imper¬ 
fectly vitrified. 

Seneca Oil. Petroleum from 
Seneca Lake, N. Y. 

Sensation. Cognizance of an 
impression. 


Sensitive. Readily effected or 
changed by certain agents. 

Sensorium. The center of sen¬ 
sation ; the brain, and the collection 
of ganglia at its base. 

Sepsin. A poisonous proximate 
principle isolated from puerpeal peri¬ 
toneal fluids by Panum. 

Septic. Pertaining to putrefac¬ 
tion. 

Septum. A partition or division. 

Seralbumen. The albumen of 
the blood. (See page 178.) 

Sericum. (L.) Silk. 

Serofibrous. Serous and fibrous. 

Serous. Watery; thin. 

Serous Membrane. (See Mem¬ 
brane .) 

Serrated. Saw-like. 

Serum . The liquid portion of 
the blood, after the separation of 
the coagulum or clot, of which albu¬ 
men is the principal organic ingredi¬ 
ent. (See page 192.) 

Sesqui. A prefix, denoting the 
proportion of one and a half equival¬ 
ents of the substance to the name of 
which it is prefixed, to one equival¬ 
ent of some other substance. 

Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia. 
Carbonate of ammonia containing 
three equivalents of carbonic acid, 
two of ammonia, and two of water. 

Sesquicarbonate of Soda. 

( Trona .) The native Egyptian soda. 

Sesquichloride of Iron. (See 
Chloride of Iron.) 

Sesquiodide. A compound of 
iodine with another element in the 
proportion of three to two. 

Sesquioxide. A compound of 
oxygen with some other element, in 
the proportion of three to two. 

Sesquisalt. A salt having three 
equivalents of one substance and two 
of another. 

Sesquisulpiiide. ) A compound 

Sesquisulphuret. j of sulphur 
with some other element, in the pro¬ 
portion of three to two. 

Seta. (L.) A bristle; a hair. 

Setaceous. Like bristles. 







456 


LEXICON. 


Seton. A small, artificial pas¬ 
sage made under the skin by means 
of a needle carrying threads, which 
are daily moved in order to keep up 
irritation and discharge. 

Sevum. (L.) (Mutton suet.) 
The fat of the sheep taken from 
about the kidneys. 

Sewage . The materials collected 
in and discharged by sewers. 

Sexual . Pertaining to the sexes. 

Shellac. ) Resin lac spread 

Shell Lac . j into thin sheets af¬ 
ter melting and straining. 

Sherry. A strong, alcoholic 
wine made from a mixture of purple 
and white grapes, in the vicinity of 
Xeres, Spain. It does not attain its 
best quality until fifteen years of age. 

Si. Symbol of silicon. 

Sialagogue. A medicine in¬ 
creasing the secretion of saliva 

Sialisma. Salivation. 

Sialon. (G.) Saliva. 

Sibilant. Having a hissing 
sound. 

Siccation. Drying. 

Siccative. A medicine prompt¬ 
ing the process of drying. 

Sigillum. (L.) A seal. 

Sigmoid . Shaped like the Greek 
letter sigma ; a term applied to the 
valve of the aorta. 

Silex. Silicic acid in an impure 
state, as found in flint and sand. 

Silica. * Pure silicic acid. 

Silicate. A compound of silicic 
acid with a base. 

Silicate of Potassa. (Soluble 
Glass.) A salt prepared in a man¬ 
ner similar to that for obtaining sili- 
cate of soda. 

Silicate of Soda. (Soluble 
Glass.) A salt obtained by fusing 
one part of silica, and two of car¬ 
bonate of soda in an earthenware 
crucible. (See Antiseptics.) 

Silicic Acid. ) The oxide of 

Silicium. j silicon, found 
pure in the form of white, transpar¬ 
ent quartz. Symbol, Si0 2 . 

Silicon. Next to oxygen, the 


most abundant of the elements. It 
does not occur free in nature, but 
always combined with oxygen. (See 
page 111.) 

Silico-Propionic Acid. A 
compound in which a large percent¬ 
age of the carbon of propionic acid 
is replaced by silicon. 

Silk Collodion. A collodion 
prepared by dissolving silk in a so¬ 
lution of chloride of zinc. 

One of 
ee page 

111 .) 

Simple. Elementary ; that cannot 
be decomposed into more elementary 
substances. 

Sinapis. (L.) Mustard. 

Sinciput. The fore part of the 
head. 

Sin Eaters. In Wales a custom 
was prevalent at funerals, of having 
“sin eaters” present, who ate a 
piece of bread, and at the same time 
were supposed to assume the sins of 
the corpse. 

Sine Qua Non. (L.) “Without 
which, not.” An indispensable con¬ 
dition. 

Sinew. A tendon. 

Sinister. Upon the left side. 

Sinus. (L.) A long, narrow 
cavitv. 

Siphon. A bent tube, with arms 
of unequal length, by which the 
pressure of the air is made to force 
liquid from one vessel to another. 

Sirup. The sweet juice of vege¬ 
tables or fruits, or sugar boiled 
with vegetable infusions. 

Sitis. (L.) Thirst. 

Siton. (G.) Food. 

Skeleton. The bones of an ani¬ 
mal body. 

Slaked Lime. (See Calc is Hy¬ 
dras.) 

Slavering. Involuntary flow 
of saliva. 

Small Pox. Variola; a very con¬ 
tagious disease, characterized by an 
eruption of pustules. 

Sn. Symbol for tin. {Stannum.) 


Silver. (A rgentum .) 
the metallic elements. (S 




LEXICON. 


457 


(See Borax.) 


Soap. (See Sapo.) 

Soda. The oxide of sodium. 

Soda Ash. Carbonate of So¬ 
dium. 

Soda Biborate. ) 

Soda Borate, j 

Sod^e BicARBONAS. (L.) (See Bi¬ 
carbonate of Soda.) 

SodyE Boras. (See Borax.) 

Sod^e Carbon as. (See Carbonate 
of Soda.) 

Sodh3 Chlorat.e Liquor. (See 
Chloride of Soda Solution.) 

Soile ILyposulphis. (Hydrosul¬ 
phite of Soda.) A salt prepared by 
digesting sulphite of soda with sul¬ 
phur. It is said to be destructive of 
microscopic fungi. 

Sod^e Murias. Chloride of So¬ 
dium. 

Sod^e Nitras. (See Cubic Ni¬ 
tre.) 

Sodhs Silicas. (See Silicate of 
Soda.) 

Soda Hydrate. (See Caustic 


Soda.) 

Soda Muriate. (See Chloride of 
Sodium.) 

Soda Nitrate. (See Cubic Ni¬ 
tre. ) 

Soda Solution, Chlorinated. 


(See Antiseptics.) 

Soda Sulphate. (See Glauber’s 
Salt.) 

Soda Sulphite. A salt prepared 
by passing sulphurous acid into a so¬ 
lution of carbonate of soda. (See 


Antiseptics.) 

Soda Vitriolated. (See Glau¬ 
ber’s Salt.) 

Soda Glycocholate. A salt of 
glycocholic acid existing in the bile, 
crystallizing in stellate needles. 

Sodic Urate. A salt obtained 
by saturating a solution of caustic 
soda with uric acid. 

Sodii Ciiloridum. (L.) (See Chlo¬ 
ride of Sodium.) 

Sodium. One of the metals. (See 
page 111.) 

Soft Water. A pure water which 
forms a lather with soap. 


Solar Plexus. An assemblage 
of ganglia connected with the great 
sympathetic nerve. 

Soleus. A muscle of the leg. 

Soluble. That can be dissolved. 

Soluble Glass. (See Silicate of 
Soda.) 

Solution. The state of being 
dissolved; a substance dissolved in a 
liquid. 

Solutions. (See Liquor.) 

Solutive. Laxative. 

Solvent. A liquid capable of 
dissolving bodies. 

Somnambulism. Sleep-walking. 

Somniferous. Bringing sleep. 

Somnolency. Sleepiness. 

Soot. (Fuligo Ligni.) A sub¬ 
stance produced by burning wood; 
it contains creasote, chloride of po¬ 
tassium, sulphate of potassium, etc. 

Soporific. Inducing deep sleep. 

Sorbefacient. Absorbent. 

Sound. A metallic instrument 
for exploring the bladder. 

Sounding. Exploring the blad¬ 
der. 

Spa. A mineral spring. 

Spasm. Morbid contraction of 
muscles. 

Spatula. A thin flat knife for 
spreading ointments, etc. 

Specific. A term applied to 
remedies which act on any part of 
the system, and produce uniform re¬ 
sults. 

Specific Gravity. The density 
of bodies compared with an equal 
bulk of water. (See page 134.) 

Specific Gravity Bottle. A 
bottle, having a capacity for exactly 
1000 grains of distilled water, when 
filled with any liquid whose specific 
gravity is to be ascertained, and 
weighed gives the weight in grains 
of the liquid, also its specific 
gravity. 

Spectroscope. An instrument 
for observing the elongated image 
formed by the passage of luminous 
rays through a prism. By its use 
five new elements have been discov- 










458 


LEXICON. 


ered, and the composition of the 
heavenly bodies determined. 

Spelter. Commercial zinc. 

Sperm. The seminal fluid. 

Spermaceti. (See Cetaceum.) 

Spermatic. Belonging to the 
testacies and ovary. 

Spermatorrhoea. Seminal flux, 

Spermatozoa. Thread-like, mi¬ 
nute bodies discovered in the semen, 
constituting its fecundating princi¬ 
ple. 

Sphenoid. Wedge-shaped. 
Name of a bone at the base of the 
skull. 

Sphenoidal. Belonging to the 
sphenoid bone. 

Sphero-Bacteria. Minute, 
spherical or oval cells, appearing 
singly or adhering to one another 
in pairs or chains. The micrococcus 
is the only genus of this group. 

Spheroid. Nearly spherical. 

Sphincter. A muscle surround¬ 
ing an opening of the body, closing 
it bv its contraction. 

Sphygmos. (G.) The pulse. 

Sphygmograph. An instrument 
devised to record the form and force 
of the movements of the arterial pulse. 

Spice. A fragrant or aromatic 
vegetable production. 

Spicula. A little spike; a pointed 
piece of bone. 

Spina. (L.) A thorn; the back¬ 
bone. 

Spinal. Pertaining to the back¬ 
bone. 

Spine. The vertebral column; 
the backbone. 

Spinous. Thorny. 

Spirilla. Corkscrew-like, spir¬ 
ally moving microbes. 

Spirit. A volatile fluid; the 
product of distillation. . 

Spirit of Camphor. (Tincture 
of Camphor.) A solution of four 
ounces of camphor in two pints of 
alcohol. 

Spirit of Malt. A spirit dis¬ 
tilled from malt which is the basis 
of most of the spirituous cordials. 


Spirit of Turpentine. A com¬ 
mon name for oil of turpentine. 

Spirit of Wine.. Alcohol. 

Spirit, Proof. (See Proof 
Spirit.) 

Spirit, Pyroacetic. (See Ace¬ 
tone.) 

Spirit, Pyroxylic. (See Alcohol, 
Methyl.) 

Spirit, Rectified. (See Alco¬ 
hol.) 

Spiritus. (L.) (See Spirit.) 

Spiritus Frumenti. (L.) (Whis¬ 
ky.) Spirit obtained by the distil¬ 
lation of fermented grain, contain¬ 
ing from 48 to 50 per cent of alco¬ 
hol. 

Spiritus Pyroxylicus Rectifi- 
catus. (See Alcohol, Methyl.) 

Spiritus Rectificatus. (See Al¬ 
cohol.) 

Spiritus Vini Gallici. (See 
Brandy.) 

Spirobacteria . Cvlindrical cells, 
generally several lines longer than 
wide, and spirally twisted like a cork¬ 
screw . 

Spirochaete. A variety of spiro¬ 
bacteria. 

Spirol. Carbolic acid. 

Spirometer. An instrument for 
measuring the capacity of the lungs. 

Spirous Acid. (See Salicylous 
Acid.) 

Spissitude. The thickness of 
soft substances. 

Splanchna. (G.) The entrails. 

Splanchnic. Pertaining to the 
viscera. 

Splanchnology . Description of 
the entrails. 

Spleen. An organ in the left 
hypochondrium. (See page 77.) 

Splints. Long flat pieces of 
wood, used in securing fractured 
bones, etc. 

Sponge. ( Sponcjia .) An animal, 
inhabiting the bottom of the sea, of 
which there are many species. They 
produce the porous substance called 
sponge, and are most abundant in 
the tropics. 






LEXICON. 


459 


Sporadic. Confined to some par¬ 
ticular locality. 

Spores . Reproductive bodies an¬ 
alogous to seeds or germs. 

Sprain. The sudden shifting of 
a joint farther than the natural con¬ 
formation of bones and ligaments 
allow. 

Spuma. (L.) Froth. 

Sp URGE. The common name for 
a number of species of Euphorbia. 

Spurious. False. 

Squama. (L.) A scale. 

Squamous. Scaly. 

Sr. Symbol for strontium. 

Stamina. Strength. 

Standard. Having a fixed or 
permanent value. Standard solu¬ 
tions are solutions of chemical re¬ 
agents of known strength used in 
chemical analysis. 

Stannic Acid. An acid prepared 
by decomposing bichloride of tin 
with water. 

Stannum. (L.) Tin. 

Stapes. (L.) A small bone of the 
internal ear. 

Starch. A vegetable product. 
(See A mylum .) 

Stasis. Stagnation of the blood. 

Steam. The vapor of water. 

Stearate. A compound of stearic 
acid with some base. 

Stearic Acid . An acid obtained 
from fats and bile. (See page 263.) 

Stearin. (See page 163.) 

Stearoptene. The solid portion 
of volatile oils. 

Stearone. A substance obtained 
from the partial decomposition of 
stearic acid with a fourth part of 
quicklime. 

Steatoma. A species of fatty 
tumor. 

Steel. A compound of iron and 
carbon. 

Stercoraceous. A term applied 
to vomiting when feces is mingled 
with other matters thrown out. 

Sterility. Barrenness. 

Sterilized Fluids. Fluids de¬ 
prived of all germs of bacterial life. 


Sternal. Pertaining to the ster¬ 
num. 


Sternalgia. Pain in the ster¬ 
num. 

Sternum. The breast-bone. (See 
page 61.) 

Sternutatory. Causing to 
sneeze. 

Stertor. (L.) Noisy respiration. 

Stethos. (G.) The breast. 

Stethoscope. An instrument ap¬ 
plied to the breast for listening to 
the sound of the lungs. 

Sthenic. Possessed of strength. 

Stibium. The ancient name for 


antimony. 

Still. A vessel used in distilling 
fluids. 

Stitch. A spasmodic pain. 

Stimulant. An exciting agent. 

Stimulus. That which incites to 
action. 

Stochiometry. The doctrine of 
chemical equivalents. (See page 
119.) 


Stoma. (G. Plural, Stomata.) 
A mouth; a breathing-pore. 

Stomach. (See page 76.) 

Stomach Pump. A small pump 
with a flexible tube, for drawing- 
liquids from the stomach. 

Stomach Teeth. The canine 
teeth of the lower jaw. 

Stomatitis. Inflammation of the 
mouth. 


Stools. The feces or passages 
from the bowels. 

Stoupe. A cloth soaked in tur¬ 
pentine, etc., used in fomentations. 

Stoved Salt. A variety of salt 
so named in commerce. 

Strabismus. Turning of the eyes 
from their proper direction; squint- 
ing. 

Strangulation. A stricture; a 
choking. 

Strangury. A painful discharge 
of urine. 

Strasburg Turpentine. The 
product of the Abies pectinata or 
European silver fir. (See Antisep¬ 
tics.) 




460 


LEXICON. 


Strepto-Coccus. A bacterium 
in which the segments are united in 
a long chain. 

Striate. Marked with long 
lines. 

Stricture. Contraction or clos¬ 
ing of a passage. 

Stronger Alcohol. Alcohol 
having the specific gravity 0.817. 

Strontia. The oxide of stron¬ 
tium; an alkaline earth. 

Strontium. A yellowish-white 
metal. 

Strumous. Scrofulous. 

Stupor. Drowsiness. 

Styliform. Shaped like a narrow 
rod. 

Styloid. A process of the tem¬ 
poral bone. 

Styptic. A medicine which serves 
to arrest bleeding. 

Styptic Colloid. A liquid con¬ 
sisting of ether saturated with tan¬ 
nic acid or some such substance as 
gun-cotton. 

Styrax. (Storax.) A balsamic 
juice obtained from the Oriental 
Sweet Gum. 

Styrax Benzoin. (See Benzoin.) 

Styrol. The essential oil of 
styrax. 

Styroline. A constituent of 
coal tar. 

Sub. A prefix denoting a low de¬ 
gree of a quality. 

Subacetate. An acetate having 
an excess of base. 

Subacid. Moderately acid. 

Subcarbonate. A carbonate con¬ 
taining more than one equivalent of 
the base for each, equivalent of car¬ 
bonic acid. 

Subcarburetted. Having more 
equivalents of base than of carbon. 

Slbchloride of Mercury. (See 
Calomel.) 

Subclavian. Lying beneath the 
clavicle. 

Subcutaneous. Beneath the 
skin. 

Suberate. A compound of sub¬ 
eric acid with some base. 


Subiodide. A subsalt containing 
less iodine than the iodide. 

Sublimate. To bring by heat 
into the state of vapor, which, on 
cooling, returns to the solid state; 
the product of such a process. 

Sublimate, Corrosive. (See 
Corrosive Sublimate.) 

Sublimated Sulphur. (Flowers 
of Sulphur.) Sulphur prepared from 
a crude state by sublimation. 

Sublingual. Situated beneath 
the tongue. 

Submaxillary. Under the lower 
jaw. 

Submersion. Sinking below the 
surface of a liquid. 

Subsalt. A salt containing a less 
number of equivalents of the acid 
than the base. 

Substernal. Beneath the breast¬ 
bone. 

Subsulphate. A sulphate with 
an excess of the base 

Subsulphide. A sulphide having 
an excess of some other substance, as 
a metal. 

Succession. A following of 
things in order of time or place. 

Succinate. A compound of suc¬ 
cinic acid with a base. 

Succinic Acid. An acid obtained 
from amber. 

Succulent. Juicy. 

Sucus. (L.) Juice. 

Sudor. (L.) Sweat. 

Sudorific. Inducing perspira¬ 
tion. 

Sugar. A sweet vegetable prod¬ 
uct. 

Sugar of Gelatin. (See Glvco- 
coll.) 

Sugar of Milk. A hard, crystal¬ 
line, white substance, obtained by 
evaporating the whey of milk. 

Sugar of Muscle. (See Inosite.) 

Sulphate. A compound of sul¬ 
phuric acid with some base. 

Sulphate of Copper. (See Cupri 
Sulphas and Antiseptics.) 

Sulphate of Iron. (See Ferri 
Sulphas and Antiseptics.) 






LEXICON. 


461 


Sulphate of Lime. (See Colds 
Sulphas and Antiseptics.) 

Sulphate of Potassa. (SeePo- 
tassce Sulphas. 

Sulphate of Soda. (See Glaub¬ 
er's Salt.) 

Sulphate of Zinc. A salt ob¬ 
tained by dissolving zinc in sulphuric 
acid. It is also called “white vitriol.” 
Formula, ZnS0 4 . (See Antiseptics.) 

Sulphide. A compound of sul¬ 
phur with another element or some 
substance taking the place of an ele¬ 
ment. 

Sulphide of Ammonia. A sub¬ 
stance occurring in colorless crystals, 
obtained by bringing together sul¬ 
phuretted hydrogen and ammonia 
gas. 

Sulphide of Carbon. (See Bi¬ 
sulphide of Carbon.) 

Sulphite. A salt formed by the 
combination of sulphurous acid with 
a base. 

Sulphite of Soda. (See Soda 
Sulphite.) 

Sulpho-Acids. Conjugate acids 
formed when strong sulphuric acid 
is added to many organic compounds. 

Sulpiio-Acetic Acid. An acid 
obtained by heating together chloride 
of acetyl, sulphate of silver, and 
powdered glass. 

SULPHOCARBOLATE OF SODA. A 
salt prepared by adding carbonate of 
soda to a heated mixture of carbolic 
and sulphuric acids. 

SULPHOCARBOLATE OF ZlNC. A 
salt obtained by adding zinc to a 
compound of sulphuric and carbolic 
acids. 

Sulphocarbolic Acid. An acid 
in needle-shaped crystals. 

Sulphocarbonic. Consisting of 
sulphur and carbon. 

Sulphocyanide. A compound of 
sulphocyanogen and another constit¬ 
uent. 

Sulphopiienates. (Sulphocar- 
bolates.) A class of salts obtained by 
treating carbolic acid with sulphuric 
acid at a high temperature. They 


have many of the properties of crude 
carbolic acid, but not its strong odor. 

Sulpho Salts. A term applied 
to compounds formed by the combi¬ 
nation of different sulphurets. 

Sulphovinic Acid. (Ether Sul¬ 
phuric acid.) An acid formed by 
the mixture of two equivalents of 
sulphuric acid, and one of alcohol. 

Sulphur. (See page 112.) 

Sulpiiuret. A compound of 
sulphur with another element, or 
some substance taking the place of 
an element. 

Sulphuretted Hydrogen. (See 
Hydrosulphuric Acid.) 

Sulphuric Acid. (Oil of Vit¬ 
riol.) The most important and 
useful acid known. It is a thick, 
oily liquid, boiling at 338°, and 
freezing at 10.5. Formula, ILSO*. 

Sulphurous Acid. (See Acids.) 

Sulphydric. Containing sul- 
phur and hydrogen. 

Sunstroke. An affection pro¬ 
duced by the action of the sun upon 
some part of the body. Especially 
a sudden prostration of the physical 
powers, with symptoms resembling 
those of apoplexy, occasioned by 
exposure to excessive heat. 

Super. A prefix denoting an 
excess of some element. 

Superacidulated. Acidulated 
to excess. 

Supercilia. (L.) The eye¬ 
brows. 

Superficial. .Near the surface. 

Superior. Higher. 

Supernatant. Floating above. 

Superoxide. An oxide contain¬ 
ing more oxygen than base. 

Superphosphate. A phosphate 
containing the greatest amount of 
phosphoric acid that can combine 
with a base. 

Superphosphate of Lime. A 
soluble salt, containing phosphoric 
acid and calcium. 

Supersalt. A salt containing 
more equivalents of acid than of 
base. 






462 


LEXICON. 


Supersaturate. To add to 
beyond saturation. 

Supersulpiiate. A sulphate con¬ 
taining more acid than base. 

Supersulphuretted . Contain¬ 
ing more equivalents of sulphur than 
of base with which the Sulphur is 
combined. 

. Supine. Lying on the back. 

Suppuration. Production of pus. 

Supra. (L.) Above. 

Suprarenal Capsule. A flat 
triangular body, which covers the 
upper part of the kidney as with a 
helmet. 

Suspensory. That which sus¬ 
pends. 

Susurrus. (L.) A low mur¬ 
muring. 

Suttee. The custom formerly 
prevalent in India, of cremating a 
widow upon the pyre of her deceased 
husband. 

Suture. A joining. 

Sweet Principle of Oils. (See 
Glycerine.) 

Symbol. A sign or representa¬ 
tion. (See page 117.) 

Sympathetic. Associated to¬ 
gether in function. 

Symphysis. A connection of 
bones by intervening texture. 

Symptom. A sign of disease. 

Synchronous. Occurring in 
equal time. 

Syncope . Swooning. 

Syndesmosis. Connection of 
bones by ligaments. 

Synovia . A fluid lubricating the 
joints. 

Synthesis. The uniting of ele¬ 
ments to form a compound. 

Syntonin. A protein compound 
contained in the fibrils of muscles. 

Syphilis. Venereal disease. 

Syringe. An instrument for 
ejecting fluids. 

Syrup. (See Sirup.) 

System. A term applied to the 
human body ; also to an assemblage 
of similar parts composed of an 
identical tissue. 


Systemic. Pertaining to the 
whole system. 

T. 

Tabes. (L.) Wasting of the 
body. 

Tag Alder. (Aimes incana.) A 
plant common in this country, whose 
bark is used to arrest a flow of blood. 

Tjenia. (L.) Tape-worm. 

.Talc. A soft magnesian mineral, 
soapy to the touch. 

Talipes. (L.) Club-foot. 

Tallow . The suet or fat of ani¬ 
mals separated by melting from for¬ 
eign substances. 

Tampon. (F.) A plug intro¬ 
duced into a cavity of the body. 

Tanacetum. (Tansy.) (See Poi¬ 
sons.) 

Tannate. A compound of tan¬ 
nic acid and a base. 

Tannic Acid. (See Tannin.) 

Tannic Acid. A name given to 
quite a number of different substan¬ 
ces of vegetable origin, principally 
derived from barks, leaves, and seeds. 
They are amorphous; soluble in 
water, astringent, and capable of 
forming imputrescible compounds 
with the gelatinoids. 

Tanning. The conversion of 
skin into leather. This w r as one of 
the modes adopted by the Egyptians 
for the preservation of their dead. 

Tapping. Puncturing a dropsi¬ 
cal cavitv with a hollow needle, for 
the purpose of drawing off the 
water. 

Tariciieutes. The embalmers 
proper of Egypt. 

Tarsus. (L.) The instep or 
ankle. 

Tartar. A deposit from wfine, 
consisting of potassa united with an 
excess of tartaric acid. Also an 
earth-like substance deposited from 
the saliva, which becomes incrusted 
on the human teeth. 

Tartar, Cream of. Bitartrate 
of Potash. 



LEXICON. 


4C3 


Tartar Emetic. (See Antimonii 
et Potassce Tartras.) 

Tartarus Boraxatus. A salt pre¬ 
pared by dissolving boracic acid and 
cream of tartar in water and evapo¬ 
rating to dryness. 

Tartaric Acid. (See Acids.) 

Tartarized Antimony. (See 
Antimonii et Potassoe Tartras.) 

Tart arum Vitriol atum. (Sul¬ 
phate of Potassa.) A salt produced 
in the distillation of nitric acid from 
nitre and sulphuric acid. 

T artras Borico-Potassicus. 
(See Tartras Boraxatus.) 

Tartrate. A compound of tar¬ 
taric acid with a base. 

Tartrate of Antimony and 
Potassa. Tartarized antimony. 

Tartrovinic. Pertaining to a 
certain acid composed of tartaric 
acid in combination with the ele¬ 
ments of ether. 

Tar-water. An infusion of 
tar. 

Taurin. (See page 201.) 

Taurocholic. Acid. (See page 

201 .) 

Taxis. A replacing of parts in 
their natural situation by the hand. 

Te. Symbol for tellurium. 

Tear-Jug. A small jug deposited 
in the tombs of the Romans, and 
supposed to contain the tears of 
mourners. 

Tegumentary. Pertaining to 
the covering. 

Tellurate. A compound of tel¬ 
luric acid with a base. 

Telluret, ) A non-acid com- 

Telluride. j pound of tellu¬ 
rium with another element. 

Telluric Acid. An acid having 
the formula, H 4 Te 0 4 . 

Tellurite. A compound of tel- 
lurous acid with a base. 

Tellurium. A rare white ele¬ 
ment resembling sulphur in many of 
its properties. 

Temperament. Constitutional 
peculiarity. 

Tempora. (L.) The temples. 


Temporal. Pertaining to the 
temples. 

Tenaculum. (L.) A hook used 
by surgeons in securing arteries. 

Tendon. A white elongated ex¬ 
tremity of a muscle. 

Tendo Achillis. (See Achilles 
Tendon.) 

Tenesmus. Pain and difficulty 
in defecation. 

Tenotomy. The dividing of a 
tendon. 

Tense. Stretched ; tight. 

Tensor. Name of certain mus¬ 
cles whose office is to extend the part 
to which they are attached. 

Tepid. Slightly warm. 

Terchloride. A chloride con¬ 
taining three equivalents of chlo¬ 
rine. 

Terchloride of Antimony So¬ 
lution. (See Poisons.) 

Terchloride of Formyl. (See 
Chloroform.) 

Terebinthina. (Turpentine.) 
The concrete juice of several species 
of the pine tree 

Terebinthina Vulgaris. Com¬ 
mon European turpentine. 

Terebinthina Oleum. (See Oil 
of Turpentine.) 

Teres. (L.) Round; cylindri¬ 
cal. 

Tergum. (L.) The back. 

Teriodide. An iodide contain¬ 
ing three equivalents of iodine. 

Teriodide of Formyl. (See 
Iodoform.) 

Ternary. Relating to the num¬ 
ber three. (See page 127.) 

Ternate. Having an arrange¬ 
ment by threes. 

Ternitrate. A nitrate contain¬ 
ing three equivalents of nitric 
acid. 

Teroleate of Glyceryl. (Trio¬ 
lein.) A name given by Berthelot to 
a compound formed by the combi¬ 
nation of carbon, hydrogen and oxy¬ 
gen; olein. 

Teroxide of Antimoy. (See 
Poisons.) 



464 


LEXICON. 


Terpin. A crystalline, hydrated 
oil of turpentine. 

Terra Alba. (L. White Earth.) 
A substance prepared from sulphate 
of lime, used for adulteration of con¬ 
fectionery, etc. 

Terrenus. (L.) Belonging to 
the earth. 

Tersulphate. A sulphate con¬ 
taining three equivalents of sulphuric 
acid. 

Tersulphuret. A sulphuret con¬ 
taining three equivalents of sulphur. 

Tertian. Recurring every third 
day. 

Test. A substance used to de¬ 
tect any unknown constituent of a 
compound, by causing it to exhibit 
some characteristic property ; a re¬ 
agent . 

Testa. (L.) A shell. 

Testaceous. Of the nature of 
shell. 

Testes. (L.) Plural of Testis, 
which see. 

Testis . The gland in the scrotum 
which secretes the semen. 

Test-Paper. Paper impregnated 
with some reagent, such as litmus, 
and used for detecting the presence 
of any substance. 

Test-Tube. A tube for holding 
substances to be tested. 

Tetanus. A disease in which 
there is a spasmodic contraction of 
the muscles of voluntary motion, 
with tension and rigidity of the parts 
affected. 

Tetra. ) A prefix denoting the 

Tetrad, j number four. 

Tetrachloride . A chloride con¬ 
taining four equivalents of chlorine. 

Tetrachloride of Carbon. (See 
Bichloride of Carbon.) 

Tetrathionate of Soda. A salt 
formed by the solution of iodine in 
the hyposulphite of soda. 

•Tetter. A vesicular disease ; 
herpes. 

Texture. Tissue; membrane. 

Th. Symbol for thorium, or 
thorinum. 


Thallic Acid. An acid formed 
when oxide of thallium is suspended 
in potash lye, and a stream of chlor¬ 
ine gas is passed through it. 

Thallium. A soft bluish- white 
metal resembling lead in its physical 
properties. 

Thalmus. A part of the brain. 

Theca. (G.) A sheath. 

Theobrom.e Oleum. L.) Oil of 
theobroma. (See Butter of Cacao.) 

Therapeutics. Knowledge relat¬ 
ing to the curative action of medi¬ 


cines. 

Theriaca. (VeniceTreacle.) An 
alleged antidote to poisons, composed 
of a great number of drugs pulverized 
and mingled with honey. 

Thermometer. An instrument 
for measuring heat. (See Freezing 
Point.) 

Thesis. A dissertation on a cer¬ 
tain subject. 

Thieves’ Vinegar. (See Mar¬ 
seilles Vinegar.) 

Thionessal. A sulphur obtained 
from petroleum. 

Thoracic. Pertaining to the 
chest. 

Thorax. The chest. (See page 
62 .) 

Thorinum. ) A heavy, gray metal 

Thorium, f which burns with 


great brilliancy. 

Thrombus. A coagulum of blood 
forming in the veins. 

Thyme. A pungent aromatic 
plant possessing a volatile oil which 
may be separated by distillation. 

Thymene. A hydrocarbon con¬ 
tained in the oil of thyme. 

Thymic Acid. [ A concrete prin- 

Thymol. j ciple obtained 
from the oil of thyme by submitting 
it to cold. (See Antiseptics.) 

Thymus Gland. A gland behind 
the sternum. 

Tibia. The large bone of the 
lower leg. 

Tibial. Pertaining to the tibia. 

Tic Douloureux. (F.) Neu¬ 
ralgia of the facial nerve. 



LEXICON. 


465 


Tiglii Oleum. (See Croton Oil.) 

Tin. (Stannum.) A white, soft, 
malleable, ductile metal which occurs 
as tin dioxide in various places, prin¬ 
cipally in Cornwall. 

Tincal. Crude borax. 

Tincture. (Tinctura.) A solu¬ 
tion of medicinal substances in alco¬ 
hol. 

Tinder. (Agaric.) A fungus used 
for kindling fire. 

Tinnitus Aurium. (L.) A ring¬ 
ing sound in the ears. 

Tissue. By this term in anatomy, 
is meant the various parts, which, by 
their union, form the organs, and 
are, as it were, their anatomical ele¬ 
ments. (See Membranes.) 

Titanate. A compound of titanic 
acid with some base. 

Titanic. Pertaining to titanium. 

Titanium. A blue metal, discov¬ 
ered in 1791. 

Tithonic. Pertaining to those 
rays of light which produce chemical 
effect. 

Titrate. To analyze by means of 
standard solutions. 

Titration. Volumetric analysis. 

Titubation. Pestlessness. 

Tobacco (See Poisons.) 

Tokology. Science of midwiferv. 

Tolene. A volatile oil obtained 
from balsam of tolu. 

Toludina. An artificial alkaloid 
obtained from oil of turpentine. 

Tone. The natural and healthy 
tension of muscular fibers. 

Tonka Bean. An aromatic bean 
obtained from the Coumarouna odo- 
rata, a tree growing in Guiana. 

Tonsils. Glands on each side of 
the throat. 

Tonsilitis. Inflammation of the 
tonsils. 

Topical. Local. 

Torpor. Dullness; inactivity. 

Toricellian Vacuum. The vacu¬ 
um at the upper part of the barome¬ 
ter. 

Torrefy. To dry or parch until 
in a friable state. 

30 


Torison. Twisting. 

Torula. Micrococci grouped to¬ 
gether like a necklace. 

Torulaceous. Of the nature of 
torula. 

Tourniquet (F.) A surgical in¬ 
strument, which is tightened or re¬ 
laxed with a screw, and used to check 
the flow of blood. 

Tow. The coarse and broken part 
of flax and hemp. 

Toxic. Poisonous. 

Toxicology. The science which 
treats of poisons and their antidotes. 

Trachea . The windpipe. 

Tracheal. Pertaining to the 
windpipe. 

Trachitis. Inflammation of the 
mucous membrane of the trachea. 

Tracheotomy. Incision into the 


windpipe. 

Traction. Steady pulling. 

Tragacanth. A somewhat in¬ 
soluble gum, obtained from the As¬ 
tragalus versus. Its uses are some¬ 
what similar to gum arabic. 

Transfusion. Conveying the 
blood from one animal to the veins of 
another. 

Transpiration. Exhalation out¬ 
ward . 

Transudates. The products of 
transudation. 

Transudation. The passage of 
blood or other fluid, unaltered, 
through the pores of the skin or 


Pertaining to 


membranes. 

Trapezius. A muscle of the 
shoulder blade. 

Traumatic. 
wounds. 

Treacle. A viscid, uncrystal- 
Sizable syrup, which drains from the 
sugar refiner’s molds. 

Tremor. (L). Trembling. 

Trepan. { k cylindrical saw, 
Trephine, j J 

m instrument for perforating bones. 
Tresis. A perforation. 

Tri. A prefix signifying three. 
Tribasic. Containing threeequi- 
s'alents of base to one of acid. 


/ 



406 


LEXICON. 


Triceps. (L). Three-headed. 

Trichiasis. Inversion of the 
eye-lids. 

Trichina. An animal parasite 
found in the muscles of animals, and 
sometimes in man, producing death 
by its presence. 

Tricuspid. Three-pointed. 

Trifid. Three-cleft. 

Trifacial. A facial nerve. 

Trigastric. Three-bellied. 

Trimetiiylamin. (See page 266.) 

Trinervis. (L). Three-nerved. 

Trinitro Cellulose. Gun-cot¬ 
ton. 

Triolein. (See Teroleate of 
glycerine.) 

Teroxide. A non-acid compound 
of one equivalent of base with three 
equivalents of oxygen. 

Trismus. Lock-jaw. 

Triturate. To rub down in 
mortar. 

Trituration. 'The act of rub¬ 
bing down in mortar. 

Trocar. A hollow instrument 
used for tapping. (See page 294.) 

Trochar. (See Trocar.) 

Trochlea. A cartilaginous pully 
through which a muscle passes. 

Trociilearis. A muscle of the 
eye. 

Trona. A native sesquicarbonate 
of soda. 

Troy Weight. The weight by 
which gold, silver, jewels, etc., are 
weighed. The troy pound contains 
12 ounces, the ounce 20 penny¬ 
weights, and the pennyweight 24 
grains. 

Trunk-nerve. A main nerve 
giving off branches. 

Trypsin. One of the digestive 
ferments of pancreatic juice. 

Trypsis. (G.) Friction. 

Tubercle. A small swelling or 
tumor in the substance of an or- 
gan. 

Tuberosity. A protuberance. 

Tubular. Tube-like. 

Tumefaction. Swelling. 

Tumid. Swollen; distended. 


Tumor. A morbid, circumscribed 
enlargement. 

Tungstate. A compound of 
tungstic acid with a base. 

Tungsten. A grayish-wliite, 
lustrous metal, discovered in 1781. 

Tungstic Acid. When tungsten 
is heated to redness in the open air, 
it takes fire, and is converted to 
tungstic acid. 

Tunic. A coat; a membranous 
covering. 

Turgid. Swollen. 

Turpentine. A term applied to 
certain vegetable juices which con¬ 
sist of resin, combined with a pecul¬ 
iar essential oil called oil of turpen¬ 
tine. They are generally procured 
from the pine or some similar 
tree. 

Turpentine, Bordeaux. (See 
Bordeaux Turpentine. 

Turpentine, Canada. (See 
Abies Balsamea.) 

Turpentine, Chian. (See 
Chian Turpentine.) 

Turpentine, Common Ameri¬ 
can. (See White Turpentine.) 

Turpentine, Common Euro¬ 
pean. (See Finns Sylvestris.) 

Turpentine Oil.* (See Oil of 
Turpentine.) 

Turpentine, Strasburg. (See ■ 
Strasburg Turpentine.) 

Turpentine, Syrian. A sub¬ 
stance which was used in making 
Theban mummies. 

Turpentine, Venice. (See 
Venice Turpentine.) 

Turpentine, Whit e. (See 
White Turpentine.) 

Turpeth Mineral. The ortho¬ 
sulphate of mercury. (See Poisons.) 

Tympanum. The drum of the 
ear. 

Typhoid. Resembling typhus; a 
low fever. 

Typhus. A congestive and ma¬ 
lignant fever. 

Typic. Characterized by period- 
icy. 

Tyrosin. An alkaloid found in 




LEXICON. 


467 


the liver and other parts of the 
body. (See page 265.) 

Tyrotoxicon. (See Poisons.) 


u. 

U. Symbol for uranium. 

Ulcer. A sore discharging pus, 
originating generally in a constitu¬ 
tional disorder. 

Ulceration. The formation of 
an ulcer. 

Ulcus. (L.) An ulcer. 

Ulmic Acid. A vegetable prin¬ 
ciple first discovered in the matter 
issuing from the bark of the Euro¬ 
pean elm. 

Ulmin. (See Ulmic Acid.) 

Ulna. The under bone of the 
fore-arm. 

Ulnar. Pertaining to the ulna. 

Ultimate Analysis. The reso¬ 
lution of ii subject into its ele¬ 
ments. 

Umbilical. Pertaining to the 
navel. 

Umbilical Cord. The navel 
cord uniting the child to the mother 
in the womb. 

Umbilicus. The navel; the de¬ 
pression in the center of the abdo¬ 
men being the scar left by the um¬ 
bilical cord. From great distension 
of the abdomen the umbilicus may 
become everted or obliterated. 

Unciform. Hook-like. A bone 
of the wrist. 

Unction. The act of anointing 
or smearing with an ointment. 

Unctuous. Fat; oily; greasy. 

Unguent. ) (See Ointment.) 

Unguentum. \ 

Unguis. (L.) A nail. 

Upas. A poison tree of Java. 

Uremia. The presence of urea 
in the blood. 

Uranic. Pertaining to ura¬ 
nium. 

Uranium. A white-colored metal 
which occurs but sparingly in na¬ 


ture; it does not oxidize in dry air 
at ordinary temperatures, but when 
strongly heated it burns brilli¬ 
antly. 

Urate. A compound of uric 
acid with some base. 

Urate of Ammonia. An acid 
salt formed by digesting uric acid in 
a solution of ammonia. 

Urate of Potash. (See page 207.) 

Urea. An organic principle 
found in urine. (See page 206.) 

Ureciiysis. The effusion of 
urine into the cellular tissue. 

Urerythrin. (Urohamiatin.) 
The coloring matter of human urine. 

Ureter. The canal between the 
kidney and the bladder. 

Ureteritis. Inflammation of the 
ureter. 

Urethra. The canal from the 
bladder for carrying off the urine. 

Urethritis. Inflammation of 
the urethra. 

Uretic. (See Diurectic.) 

Uric. Pertaining to urine. 

Uric Acid. (Lithic Acid.) An 
acid occurring in small quantities in 
healthv human urine. (See page 
204.) 

Urine. The fluid secreted by the 
kiduey. (See page 204.) 

Urinometer. An instrument for 
measuring the specific gravity of 
urine. 

Uro dialysis. A suppression of 
urine. 

Ustulation . Roasting or drying 
moist substances so as to prepare 
them for pulverizing. 

Uterine. Pertaining to the 
uterus. 

Utero-gestation. Pregnancy. 

Uterus. The womb. 

Uvea. The black pigment on 
the back part of the iris. 

Uvic Acid. (See Paratartaric 
Acid.) 

Uvula. The pendulous body 
behind the soft palate. 

Uvulitis . Inflammation of the 
uvula. 



408 


LEXICON. 


Y. 

Vaccina. The cow-pox. 

Vaccination . Insertion of cow- 
pox virus under the skin as a pre¬ 
ventive of small-pox. 

Vaccinic Acid. A fatty acid 
obtained from butter. 

Vacuum. Space empty of all 
matter; often applied to a space 
from which the air has been ex¬ 
hausted. 

Vagina. The passage to the 
uterus. 

Valeren. (See Amylen.) 

Valerianate of Amylic Ether. 
A preparation formed by mixing 
together amylic alcohol with sul¬ 
phuric acid, and afterward adding 
valeric acid. 

Valerianic Acid. ) (See page 

Valeric Acid. j 262.) 

Valerinate. A compound of 
valeric acid with some base. 

Valerinate of Ammonia. A 
salt formed by neutralizing valeric 
acid with gaseous ammonia. 

Valetudinarian. One in feeble 
health. 

Valves of the Heart. (See 
page 67.) 

Vanadium. A rare, grayish- 
white metal, occurring in certain 
ores. 

Vanadous. Pertaining to vana¬ 
dium. 

Vaporization. Conversion into 
vapor. 

Vapor. An elastic fluid into 
which a liquid or solid is converted 
by heat; it differs from a gas in not 
being permanently elastic, but re¬ 
sumes the liquid or solid form on 
being cooled down to ordinary tem¬ 
peratures. 

Vapor-Bath. An apparatus for 
heating substances by the vapor of 
water. 

Varicella. The chicken-pox. 

Varicose. Resembling varix. 

Variola . The small-pox. 

Varioloid. A mild form of 


small-pox occurring after vaccina¬ 
tion. 

Varix. Morbid dilatation of a 
vein, analogous to aneurism in the 
arteries. 

Varnish. A solution of resinous 
matter in a volatile fluid, the fluid 
part of which evaporates after appli¬ 
cation, leaving the resinous part 
forming a smooth, hard surface. 

Varus. A pimple on the face. 

Vas. (L.) A vessel. 

Vas Deferens. (L. “ The con¬ 
veying vessel.”) The duct which con¬ 
veys the semen from the testicle into 
the ejaculatory duct. 

Vasa. (L.) Vessels. 

Vascular. Pertaining to, or 
consisting of, vessels. 

Vascular System. The system 
of vessels which include the heart, 
arteries, veins, capillaries, and lym¬ 
phatics. 

Vaseline. (Cosmoline, Petroleum 
Jelly.) A concentrated essence of 
petroleum, used as a basis of oint¬ 
ments and as an emollient applica¬ 
tion. It is insoluble in water and 
alcohol. Carbolated Vaseline is use¬ 
ful for anointing the hands before 
beginning the process of embalming. 

Vegetable Albumen. (See Al¬ 
bumen. ) 

Vegetable Charcoal. (See Car¬ 
bon .) 

Vegetable Fibrin. (See Gluten.) 

Vegetarian. One living solely 
upon vegetable food. 

Vegetation of Salts. Concre¬ 
tions formed bv salts after solution, 
when set in the air for evaporation. 
They appear on the sides of the ves¬ 
sel containing the solution, and in 
their branching form resemble 
plants. 

Vegeto-Animal Substances. A 
term applied to vegetable albumen 
and pure gluten, from their resem¬ 
blance to proximate animal prin¬ 
ciples. 

Vehicle. Any substance with 
which medicine can be mixed. 




LEXICON. 


469 


Vein. A long, membranous canal 
returning the blood of the heart. 

Vein, Femoral. The large vein 
of the thigh. (See plate III.) 

Veins, Saphenous. Two veins 
of the leg. (See plate III.) 

Velum. The soft palate. 

Vena. (L.) A vein. 

Vena Cava. A name given to 
two large veins opening into the 
heart. (See page 66.) 

Venesection. The opening of a 
vein. 

Venereal. Belonging to sexual 
intercourse. 

Venous. Pertaining to a vein. 

Ventral. Pertaining to the belly; 
abdominal. 

Ventricles. Cavities in different 
organs. Ventricles of the Brain are 
five cavities in the interior of that 
organ. Ventricles of the Heart are 
two cavities on both its right and 
left sides. (See page 67.) 

Ventricular. Relating to small 
cavities. 

Venula. (L.) A small vein. 

Veratrum. (See Poisons.) 

Verdigris. A common name for 
the subacetate of copper. (See Pois¬ 
ons.) 

Vermis. (L.) A worm. 

Vertebrae. Bones of the spinal 
column. 

Vertical. Perpendicular. 

Vertigo. Giddiness; dizziness. 

Vesica. (L.) A bladder. 

Vesical. Pertaining to the blad¬ 
der. 

Vesicle. A bladder; a blister. 

Vesicular. Belonging to, or 
having vesicles; like a bladder. 

Vessels. Canals or conduits by 
which blood, chyle, etc., are con¬ 
veyed through the body and organs. 

Vestibule. The small elliptical 
cavity of the internal ear. 

Veterinary. Pertaining to 
beasts of burden. 

Vibrio. (L. Plural, Vibriones.) 
Eel-shaped, undulatory, mobile bac¬ 
teria. 


Vibriones. (See Vibrio.) 

Vienna Caustic. A name for a 
combination of caustic potash and 
lime. 

Vinegar. ( Acetum .) Impure 
acetic acid prepared by fermenta¬ 
tion . It is derived from wine, cider, 
or other vegetable juices. The pro¬ 
cess seems to depend upon the pres¬ 
ence of a species of fungus called My- 
coderma aceti. 

Vinegar, Aromatic. (See Se¬ 
lect Formuke.) 

Vinegar, Distilled. Vinegar 
separated from its impurities by dis¬ 
tillation. 

Vinegar, Proof. (See Proof 
Vinegar.) 

Vinegar, Pyroligneous. Crude 
pyroligneous acid. 

Vinous. Having the qualities of 
wine. 

Vinous Fermentation. (See 
Alcoholic Fermentation.) 

Vinum. (L.) Wine. 

Virulent. Very poisonous. 

Virus. Contagous or poisonous 
matter. 

Vis. (L.) Power. 

Viscera. The plural of viscus; 
the entrails. 

Visceral. Belonging to the vis¬ 
cera . 

Viscid. Adhering; sticky. 

Viscous. Very glutinous; adhe¬ 
sive. 

Viscous Fermentation. A fer¬ 
mentation which takes place m cer¬ 
tain complex saccharine and mucila¬ 
ginous mixtures. 

Viscus. (L. Plural, Viscera.) 
Any large organ contained in the 
splanchnic cavities, such as the lungs, 
liver, spleen, etc. There are three 
groups of viscera, namely: The 
cranio-spinal viscera, those of the 
thorax, and those of the abdomen. 
To the first group belong the brain, 
spinal cord, and organs of sense; to 
the second, the heart, liver, and 
organs of respiration; to the third, 
the pancreas, spleen, stomach, kid- 





470 


LEXICON. 


neys, bladder, and organs of genera¬ 
tion. 

Vital. Connected with life. 

Vitreous. Made of or resem¬ 
bling glass. 

Vitreous Humor. A glass-like, 
transparent body, occupying the 
globe of the eye. 

Vitriol. A name given to cer¬ 
tain sulphates on account of their 
glass-like appearance. 

Vitriol, Blue. Sulphate of cop¬ 
per . 

Vitriol, Green: Sulphate of 
iron. 

Vitriol, Oil of. Sulphuric acid. 

Vitriol, White. Zinc Sulphate. 

Vitriolated Soda. Sulphate of 
soda. 

Vitriolated Tartar. .Sulphate 
of potassa. 

Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric acid. 

Volatile. Disposed to pass off 
by spontaneous evaporation; easily 
reducible to vapor. 

Volatile Alkali . An old name 
for ammonia gas. 

Volumetric Analysis. Chemi¬ 
cal analysis by means of measured 
volumes of solutions of reagents of 
known strength. 

V o l u n t a r y. Relating to the 
will; spontaneous. 

Vomer, (L.) A small, thin 
bone in the median line, forming 
the principal portion of the parti¬ 
tion of the nostrils. 

Vulnus. (L.) A wound. 

W. 

W. Symbol for tungsten (Wol¬ 
fram .) 

Wart. An induration and eleva¬ 
tion of the cuticle. 

Wash. A lotion. 

Water, (See Aqua.) 

Water-Bath. A device for keep¬ 
ing a substance at a high tempera¬ 
ture, but below the boiling-point. 
Jt is usually in the form of a hollow 


vessel containing boiling water, in 
the vapor of which the substance is 
warmed. 

Water-Cure. The treatment of 
diseases with water. 

Water-Gas. An illuminating 
gas, obtained by passing steam over 
ignited carbon. It is composed of hy¬ 
drogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic 
acid, in various proportions, naphth- 
alized with benzine or the volatile 
hydrocarbon of coal-tar. 

Water-Glass. (Soluble Glass.) 
Alkaline silicates used for covering- 
surfaces with a durable coat resem¬ 
bling glass. (See Silicate of Potassa 
and Silicate of Soda.) 

Water of Ammonia. (See Am¬ 
monia Gas, page 220.) 

Wax. An amber-yellow, fatty 
solid substance, produced by bees, 
and used by them in the construc¬ 
tion of their cells. 

Wax, White. (See Cera Alba.) 

Waxed Cloth. A cloth prepared 
for wrapping the bodies of the dead. 
It can be made by spreading upon 
linen or muslin a mixture composed 
of eight parts of white wax, four of 
olive oil, and one of turpentine, 
melted together. 

Weight . The downward pressure 
of bodies, due to gravity. 

Weight, Atomic. (See page 
115.) 

Wen. An encysted tumor. 

Whey. The serum, or watery 
part of milk. 

Whiskey. } (See Spiritus Fru- 

Whisky. j menti.) 

White Arsenic. (See Acid, Ar- 
senious.) 

White Balsam. (See Balsam of 
Peru.) 

White Bismuth. (See Bismuth 
Subnitrate.) 

White Copperas. A mineral of 
a white, yellowish, or brownish color, 
and astringent taste, consisting 
chiefly of sulphuric acid, peroxide of 
iron, and water. 

White Flux. A preparation 




LEXICON. 


471 


formed by deflagrating cream of tar¬ 
tar with twice its weight of nitre. 

W kite Lead. (See Carbonate of 
Lead.) 

W hite Oxide of Bismuth. (See 
Bismuth Teroxide.) 

W hite Precipitate. (See Am- 
moniated Mercury.) 

White Turpentine. A yellow¬ 
ish-white turpentine obtained from 
the Pinus palustris, and also from 
the P. tcecla. It is of a peculiar, 
aromatic odor and warm, pungent 
taste. When fresh it affords about 
seventeen per cent of volatile oil. 

White Vitriol. (See Sulphate 
of Zinc.) 

White Wax. (See Cera Alba.) 

White-Wine Vinegar . A vine- i 
gar one-sixth stronger than pure malt 
vinegar. The best comes from 
France. 

White Wines. Wines prepared 
from white grapes or from the juice 
of black grapes fermented apart from 
their skins. 

Whiting. A substance much 
used for polishing metal and for 
other purposes. It is made by the 
pulverization and elutriation of crude i 
chalk. 

Whitlow. Abscess of the ends 
of the fingers. 

Whooping-Cough . An i n f e c - 
tious disease chiefly affecting child¬ 
ren, and accompanied by a peculiar 
spasmodic cough. 

Winding Sheet. A sheet in 
which a corpse is wound or wrapped. 

Wine, Aromatic. A wine pre¬ 
pared by impregnating claret with 
sage, thyme, hyssop, spearmint, 
wormwood, and origanum. 

Wine of Antimony. (See Poi¬ 
sons. ) 

Wine, Vinegar.. (Acetuui Gal¬ 
lic um.) A vinegar prepared by the 
acetification of wine. 

Wi ntergreen. (ChimaphiJa um- 
bellata.) An aromatic, creeping 
evergreen, having bright red berries. 

, (See Antiseptics.) 


W t ood Alcohol. (See Alcohol, 
Methyl.) 

Wood Spirit. (See Alcohol, 
Methyl.) 

Wodd Sorrel. Oxalisacetosella.) 
A small plant, from which is ob¬ 
tained the binoxalate of potassa or 
salt of sorrel, or essential salt of 
lemons. It is poisonous, and is used 
for removing ink-stains, etc. (See 
Poisons.) 

Wood Tar. A product of the 
dry distillation of wood, being a 
mixture of various oils and volatile 
crystalline solids. 

Wood Vinegar. A name given 
to the acetic acid obtained by the 
distillation of wood; it contains 
wood spirit and creasote. 

Wo ORAL!. ) 

Woorara. r (See Poisons.) 

WOORARI. ) 

Wormwood. (See Absinthum.) 

x. 

Xanthic Oxide. (See page 
208.) 

Xanthin. (See page 208.) 

Xanthogen. A variety of the 
coloring matter of vegetables, pro¬ 
ducing a yellow color with alkalies. 

Xanthopsia. A jaundiced vision. 

Xantiios. (O.) Yellow. 

Xanthoxylene. A liquid, vol¬ 
atile oil isomeric with oil of turpen¬ 
tine, obtained from the Xanthoxy- 
lum alatum. 

Xaxos. The name of the Guanche 
mummies. See page 33. 

Xiphoid. Sword-like; name of 
a cartilage of the sternum. 

Xylene. (See Xylol.) 

Xylic Alcohol. A principle in 
coal tar which adheres tenaciously 
to carbolic acid, and causes it to be¬ 
come brown on exposure to the air. 

Xylic Acid. An acid obtained 
bv the action of sodium on the bro- 
mine compound of xylol in a stream 
of carbonic acid. 






472 


LEXICON. 


Xylite. A volatile, alcoholic 
liquid, obtained from pyroxylic 
spirit. 

Xylitic Acid. (See Xylic Acid.) 

Xyloidin. An explosive com¬ 
pound made by the action of strong 
nitric acid upon starch or woody 
fiber. 

Xylol. (Xylene.) A product of 
coal-tar. When pure it is a liquid 
of an aromatic odor, insoluble in 
water, soluble in ether, and spar¬ 
ingly soluble in alcohol. 

Xylonite. A name given to the 
peculiar substance derived from 
woody fiber. 

Xylitic. (See Xylic acid.) 

Y. 

Y. Symbol for yttrium. 

Yeast. (Cerevisiae Fermentum .) 
A peculiar product which collects 
upon the surface of beer while fer¬ 
menting. 

Yellow Copperas. A mineral of 
a yellow color, and pearly luster, 
consisting chiefly of sulphuric acid, 
oxide of iron, and water. 

Yellow Fever. x\ dangerous 
pestilential fever of a special type 
highly contagious under certain con¬ 
ditions. It is usually characterized 
by rigors, violent headache, pain in 
the back and limbs, and high tem¬ 
perature with nausea and vomiting. 

Yellow Oxide of Mercury. A 
monoxide of mercury obtained by 
precipitation from a solution of ni¬ 
trate of mercury by treating the 
latter with caustic potash. 

Yellow Iodide of Mercury. A 
yellow powder obtained by precipi¬ 
tating nitrate of mercury with iodide 
of potassium to which iodine has 
been previously added. 

Yellow Sulphate of Mercury. 
(See Poisons.) 

Yttria. A soft white powder 
insoluble in water, having the for¬ 
mula, Y 2 0 3 . 


Yttrium. A very rare metal, of 
grayish-black color and metallic lus¬ 
ter. 



Zeine. The gluten of maize or 
Indian corn. 

Ziega. Curd produced from 
milk by adding acetic acid after 
rennet has ceased to cause coagula¬ 
tion. 

Zinc. ( Zincum .) A white metal, 
less malleable than copper, lead, or 
tin, though not brittle. Zinc is not 
acted upon by moist or dry air, and 
hence it is largely used in the form 
of sheets, and is employed as a pro¬ 
tective covering for iron, which 
when thus coated is said to be gal¬ 
vanized. 

Zinc Acetate. A salt formed 
by the solution of acetate of lead in 
water, to which granulated zinc is 
added. 

Zinc Butter. Chloride of zinc. 

Zinc, Carbonate of. (See Carb¬ 
onate of Zinc.) 

Zinc Chloride. A salt which 
may be obtained by dissolving zinc 
in hydrochloric acid. It has anti¬ 
septic properties. (See Antiseptics.) 

Zinc, Granulated. A form of 
metallic zinc obtained by pouring 
melted zinc into cold water in a thin 
stream. 

Zinc, Solution of Chloride. 
(See Antiseptics.) 

Zinc Sulphate. (See Sulphafe 
of Zinc.) 

Zinc Vitriol. (See Sulphate of 
Zinc.) 

Zincum. (L.) Zinc. 

Zingritis. A stone resembling 
glass supposed by the ancients to 
possess medicinal virtue. 

Zirconia. An oxide of zirco¬ 
nium. 

Zirconium. A rare metal, some¬ 
what resembling antimony. 

Zn. Symbol for zinc. 

Zoe. (G.) Life. 

Zoogloea, Immobile masses of 






LEXICON. 


473 


bacteria held together by a sort of 

jelly. 

Zoological. Pertaining to zool¬ 
ogy* 

Zoology. The science of animal 
life. 

Zoster. A kind of herpes 
which extends round the body like a 
zone or girdle. 

Zygapophysis. The process of a 
vertebra bv which it it is joined to 
an adjoining vertebra. 

Zygoma . The cheek-bone. 

Zygomatic . Pertaining to the 
zygoma. 


Zygomatic Arch. The bony 
arch which connects the malar bone 
with the squamous portion of the 
temporal bone, and incloses the 
temporal muscle. 

Zymogen. A substance found in 
the pancreas which causes the fer¬ 
ment called trypsin. 

Zymoma. (Gr.) A ferment; leaven. 

Zymosis. Fermentation. 

Zymotic. A term appb’ed to those 
diseases which seem to be occasioned 
by a virus or poison operating like 
leaven. 





TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND SPECIFIC 

GRAVITIES. 


Table I. 

Weights and Measures of the United States Piiarmacopceia. 


One Pound, 

lb. = 

12 Ounces = 

5,760 Grains. 

One Ounce, 

i. - 

8 Drachms = 

480 Grains. 

One Drachm, 

3. = 

3 Scruples = 

60 Grains. 

One Scruple, 

3. 

— 

20 Grains. 

One Grain, 

gr. 

— 

1 Grain. 

One Gallon, 

C. = 

8 Pints = 

61,440 Minims. 

One Pint, 

O. = 

16 Fluid ounces = 

7,680 Minims. 

One Fluid ounce, 

f. I - 

8 Fluid drachms = 

480 Minims. 

One Fluid drachm, 

f.*3. 

= 

60 Minims. 

One Minim, 

min. 

. — 

1 Minim. 


Table II. 


Weights and Measures of the Metrical System. 


One Myriametre 
One Kilometre 
One Hectometre 
One Decametre 
One Metre 

One Decimetre 
One Centimetre 
One Millimetre 


One Myriagramme = 
One Kilogramme = 
One Hectogramme = 
One Decagramme = 
One Gramme • = 

One Decigramme = 
One Centigramme = 
One Milligramme = 

CJ 


Measures of Length. 

10,000 Metres. 

1,000 Metres. 

100 Metres. 

10 Metres. 

the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the meridian of the 
earth. 

the tenth part of one Metre, or 0.1 Metre. 

the liundreth part of one Metre, or 0.01 Metre. 

the thousandth part of one Metre, or 0.001 Metre. 

Weights. 

10,000 Grammes. 

1,000 Grammes. 

100 Grammes. 

10 Grammes. 

the weight of a cubic Centimetre of water at 4° C. 
the tenth part of one Gramme, or 0.1 Gramme, 
the liundreth part of one Gramme, or 0.01 Gramme, 
the thousandth part of one Gramme, or 0.001 Gramme. 

474 




TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 


475 


Table III. 

Relations of Metrical weights to weights of the United States Pharma- 

COPCEIA. - . 


Metrical 

Weights. 


Exact Approximate 
Equivalents Equivalents 
in Grains. in Grains. 


Metrical 

Weights. 


Exact Approximate 
Equ i valents Equ ivalents in 
in Grains. Troy Weight. 


Milligrammes. 


3 

= .0463 

t 

2T 

1 

= .0154 

l 

T> 5 

2 

= .0308 

1 

¥¥ 

4 

= .0617 

1 

1 <1 

5 

= .0771 

1 

TF 

6 

= .0926 

1 

l i 

7 

= .1080 

l 

F 

8 

= .1234 

1 

H 

9 

= .1389 

A 

7 

Centigrammes. 


1 

= .1543 

1 

B 

2 

= .3086 

1 

3 

3 

= .4630 

6 

1 3 

4 

= .6173 

7 

1 1 

5 

= .7717 

3 

T 

6 

= .9260 

» 

IF 

7 

= 1.0803 

1 

8 

= 1.2347 

i i 

9 

= 1.3890 

n 

Decigrammes. 

1 

= 1.543 

3 

2 

= 3.086 

3 

= 4.630 

4K 

4 

= 6.173 

6 

5 

= 7.717 

7 % 

6 

= 9.260 

9 

7 

= 10.803 

11 

8 

= 12.347 


f ) 

= 13.890 

14 


Grammes. 


1 

— 15.434 

gr. xv. 

2 

= 30.868 

drs. ss. 

3 

= ‘46.302 

scr. ij. 

4 

= 61.736 

drs. i. 

5 

77.170 

scr. iv. 

6 

92.604 

drs. iss. 

ry 

i 

= 108.038 

scr. vss. 

8 

123.472 

drs. ij. 

9 

= 138.906 

scr. vij. 

Decagrammes. 


1 

= 154.340 

drs. iiss. 

2 

= 308.680 

drs. v. 

3 

463.020 

drs. viiss. 

4 

= 617.360 

drs. x. 

5 

= 771.701 

drs. xiij. 

6 

926.051 

drs. xv. 

7 

= 1,080.381 

drs. xviij. 

8 

= 1,234.721 

drs. xx. 

9 

= 1,389.062 

drs. xxiij. 

Hectogrammes. 


1 

= 1,543.402 

oz. iij scr. v. 

2 

= 3,086.804 

oz. vj drs. iij. 

3 

= 4,630.206 

oz. ix drs. v. 

4 

= 6,173.609 

lb. j drs. vij. 

5 

— 7,717.011 

lb. j oz. iv. 

6 

— 9,260.413 

lb. j oz. vij. 

ry 

i 

— 10,803.816 

lb. j oz.x drs. 

8 

= 12,347.218 

lb. ijoz. j drs 

9 

= 13,890.620 

lb. ij oz. v. 

Kil 

OGRAMME. 


1 

= 15,434.023 

lb. ij oz. viij. 


Myriagramme. 

1 =154,340.23lb. xxvjoz.ixdrsiv. 


Table IV. 

Relation of weights and Measures of the United States Pharmacopceia 

to each other. 


In Distilled Water at the Temperature of 00°. 


One Pound = 

One Ounce = 

One Drachm = 
One Scruple 
One Grain 
One Gallon = 
One Pint = 

One Fluid ounce = 
One Fluid drachm= 
One Minim = 


0.7900031 Pint = 

1.0533376 Fluid ounces = 
1.0533376 Fluid drachms = 


10.1265427 Pounds 
1.2658178 Pounds 
0.9493633 Ounce 
0.9493633 Drachm 


6067.2238 Minims. 
505.6019 Minims. 
63.2002 Minims. 
21.0667 Minims. 
1.0533 Minims. 
58328.8862 Grains. 
7291.1107 Grains. 
455.6944 Grains. 
56.9618 Grains. 
0.9493 Grain. 














476 


TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 


Table V. 


Relation of Measures of the United States Pharmacopoeia to Cubic 

Measure. 


One Gallon = 
One Pint = 

One Fluid ounce = 
One Fluid drachm= 
One Minim = 


231.000 Cubic inches. 
28.875 Cubic inches. 
1.80468 Cubic inches. 
0.22558 Cubic inch. 
0.00375 Cubic inch. 




Table VI. 

Relation of Weights of The United States Pharmacopceia to Metrical 

Weights. 


Fractions of a Grain in Milli- 

Grains 

in Equivalent Metri- 

Drachms , Ounces , and 


grammes. 


cal Weights. 

Pounds in Equivalent Met¬ 
rical Weights. 

Grain. 

Milligrammes. 

Grains. Centigrammes. 

Drachms. Grammes. 

i 

6¥ 

= 1.012 

1 

= 6.479 

1 

= 2.887 

i 

1 

1 

¥8 

== 1.079 
= 1.295 
= 1.349 

2 

Decigrammes. 

= 1.295 

2 

= 7.775 

Decagrammes. 

1 

4 0 

= 1.619 

3 

= 1.943 

3 

= 1.166 

1 

3 6 

= 1.799 

4 

= 2.591 

4 

= 1.555 

1 

3 0 

= 2.159 

5 

— 3.239 

5 

= 1.943 

1 

2 5 

— 2.591 

6 

= 3.887 

6 

= 2.332 

i 

sT 

= 2.699 

7 

= 4.535 

7 

= 2.721 

l 

1 

= 3.239 

= 4.049 

8 

9 

= 5.183 

= 5.831 

Ounces. 


1 

T 5 

= 4.319 

10 

= 6.479 

1 

= 3.1103 

i 

TS 

- 5.399 

12 

= 7.775 

2 

= 6.2206 

1 

T(T 

= 6.479 

15 

= 9.718 

3 

= 9.3309 

1 

8 

1 

¥ 

1 

5 

= 8.098 

t= 10.798 


Grammes 


Hectogrammes. 

= 12.958 

16 

= 1.036 

4 

== 1.2441 

1 

i 

= 16.197 

20 

= 1.295 

5 

= 1.5551 

1 

3 

= 21.597 

24 

= 1.555 

6 

= 1.8661 

1 

= 32.395 

25 

= 1.619 

7 

= 2.1772 



30 

= 1.943 

8 

= 2.4832 


i 

40 

= 2.591 

9 

= 2.7992 



50 

= 3.239 

10 

= 3.1103 



60 

= 3.887 

11 

= 3.4213 





Pounds. 






1 

= 3.7324 





2 

= 7.4648 





3 

Kilogrammes. 
= 1.1197 












TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC 


477 


Table VII. 


Specific Gravities corresponding to Degrees of Baume s Hydrometer for Liquids heavier 

than Water. {Water =1.00.) 


X 

Degrees 

Baume. 

Specific 

Gravity. 

Degrees 

Baume. 

Specific 

Gravity. 

Degrees 

Baume 

Specific 

Gravity. 

Degrees 

Baume 

Specific- 

Gravity. 

0 

1.000 

20 

1.152 

40 

1.357 

60 

1.652 

1 

1.007 

21 

1.160 

41 

1.369 

61 

1.670 

2 

1.013 

22 

1.169 

42 

1.382 

62 

1.689 

3 

1.020 

23 

1.178 

43 

1.395 

62 

1.708 

4 

1.027 

24 

1.188 

44 

1.407 

64 

1.727 

5 

1.034 

25 

1.197 

45 

1.420 

65 

1.747 

6 

1.041 

26 

1.206 

46 

1.434 

66 

1.767 

7 

1.048 

27 

1.216 

47 

1.448 

67 

1 788 

8 

1.056 

28 

1.225 

48 

1.462 

68 

1.809 

9 

1.063 

29 

1.235 

49 

1.476 

69 

1.831 

10 

1.070 

30 

1.245 

50 

1.490 

70 

1.854 

11 

1.078 

31 

1.256 

51 

1.495 

71 

1.877 

12 

1.085 

32 

1.267 

52 

1.520 

72 

1.900 

13 

1.094 

33 

1.277 

53 

1.535 

73 

1.924 

14 

1.101 

34 

1.288 

54 

1.551 

74 

1.949 

15 

1.109 

35 

1.299 

55 

1.567 

75 

1.974 

16 

1.118 

36 

1.310 

56 

1.583 

76 

2.000 

17 

1.126 

37 

1.321 

57 

1.600 



18 

1.134 

38 

1.333 

58 

1.617 



19 

1.143 

39 

1.345 

59 

1.634 




Specific Gravities on Baume’s Scale for Liquids lighter than Water. 


Degrees 
Bau me. 


10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 


Specific 

Gravity. 


1.000 

0.993 

0.986 

0.980 

0.973 

0.967 

0.960 

0.954 

0.948 

0.942 

0.936 

0.930 

0.924 


Degrees. 

Baume. 


23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 


Specific 

Gravity. 


0.918 

0.913 

0.907 

0.901 

0.896 

0.890 

0.885 

0.880 

0.874 

0.869 

0.864 

0.859 

0.854 


Degrees 

Baume. 


36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 


Specific 

Gravity. 


0.849 

0.844 

0.839 

0.834 

0.830 

0.825 

0.820 

0.816 

0.811 

0.807 

0.802 

0.798 

0.794 


Degrees 

Baume. 


49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 


Specific 

Gravity. 


0.789 

0.785 

0.781 

0.777 

0.773 

0.768 

0.764 

0.760 

0.757 

0.753 

0.749 

0.745 


















































































478 


TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 


Table VIII. 


For Converting Degrees of the Centigrade Thermometer into Degrees of Fahrenheit's 

Scale. 


Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

—90° . 

—130° 

— 60° 

— 76° 

— 30 

— 22° 

85 

121 

55 

67 

25 

13 

80 

112 

50 

58 

20 

4 

75 

103 

' 45 

49 

15 

+ . 5 

70 

94 

40 

40 

10 

14 

65 

85 

35 

31 

5 

23 

0° 

+ 32° 

+100° 

+212° 

+200 

+392° 

+ 5 

41 

105 

221 

205 

401 

10 

50 

110 

230 

210 

410 

15 

59 

115 

239 

215 

419 

20 

68 

120 

248 

220 

428 

25 

77 

125 

257 

225 

437 

30 

86 

130 

266 

230 

446 

35 

95 

135 

275 

235 

455 

40 

104 

140 

284 

240 

464 

45 

113 

145 

293 

245 

473 

50 

122 

150 

302 

250 

482 

55 

131 

155 

311 

255 

491 

60 

140 

160 

320 

260 

500 

65 

149 

165 

329 

265 

509 

70 

158 

170 

338 

270 

518 

75 

167 

175 

347 

275 

527 

80 

176 

180 

356 

280 

536 

85 

185 

185 

365 

285 

545 

90 

194 

190 

374 

290 

554 

95 

203 

195 

383 

295 

563 


To Convert F. into C. degrees and C. into F. degrees. 
(F.—32) X 5 

- W —“ “ C °; or (F.°— 32) 1.8= C.° 

C.° X 9 

--- + 32 = F.°; or (C.° X 1.8) + 32 = F.° 

1° C. = 1.8° F. 

2 = 3.6 

3 = 5.4 

4 = 7.2 


























GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


MODES OF DEATH. 

With a brief Description of the Pathological Changes in those 

Diseases which usually Produce Death, and the Especial Pre¬ 
cautions WHICH ARE NECESSARY FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE 

Bodies of those which require unusual attention: 

N. B.—Those diseases which are contagious are marked with *. 

All forms of death, according to Bichat’s classification, are due either 
to, (a) death beginning at the heart , (h) death beginning at the 
lungs, or ( c ) death beginning at the head. This classification is conven¬ 
ient, for though death beginning at the head is in reality death by the 
failure of the circulation, or respiration, or both, through affection of 
the vital nerve centers, yet the affection of the nervous system is the 
primary fact, and the phenomena are sufficiently characteristic to deserve 
separate consideration. 

“It must, however, always be borne in mind that owing to the inter¬ 
dependence of all the vital functions there is no such sharp line of 
demarcation between the different modes of death, but we make between 
them for the purpose of classification, the following division: 

1. Death from the failure of circulation. This may be sudden, as in 
syncope and shock, or it may be gradual as in asthenia, or (2), Death from 
sudden failure of the respiration. For {in efficient circulation it is nec¬ 
essary that there should be a sufficient quantity of blood or vascular ten¬ 
sion, and a different tension in the arteries as compared with the veins. 
The circulation will be brought to a standstill bv any cause which greatly 
lowers the vascular tension or annihilates the differential pressure in the 
arterial system. The cause may be in the heart, or in the vessels, or both. 
The usual causes of sudden death , which are described more at length 
under their appropriate headings are either apoplexy; valvular heart 
disease (especially mitral); rupture of heart (or syncope) in fatty degener¬ 
ation; bursting of aneurism, or abscess, within the thorax or abdomen; 
suffocation and violent mental shock or alarm. 

The immediate cause of all death, according to Hartshorne, is 
either, (1), by. asthenia: the dynamic force of the system being 
exhausted or destroyed, so that the heart ceases to beat, as in 
lightning-stroke, poisoning by prussic acid etc. Syncope (or faint¬ 
ing) simulates or threatens this. (2) By anaemia: the blood being 
rendered insufficient for life; as from hemorrhage after labor, surgical 
injuries, bursting of aneurism. (3) By apnoea, or asphyxia: that is 

470 



480 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


arrest of respiration, either from disease of the lungs, obstruction of the 
air-passages, deficiency or impurity of the air. (4) By coma: the brain 
and medulla being made incapable of sustaining innervation; as in apo¬ 
plexy, opium poisoning, etc. Preliminary to these final causes of death 
are the diseases which ordinarily prove fatal, and whose characteristic 
lesions are briefly described in the following alphabetical list: 

A. 

Abdominal Dropsy. (See Ascites.) * 

Abscess. Small quantities of pus in an unopened cavity are of little 
importance unless they are reabsorbed by the circulation when they pro¬ 
duce pyaemia. Large abscesses may cause death from exhaustion, or 
septicaemia, or re-deposition of pus elsewhere producing metastatic 
abscesses which cause, according to Lawrence Johnson, waxy kidney, liver 
or spleen. (See Pyaemia, Sejiflicaemia and Amyloid.) 

Abscess of the Brain produces death by convulsion, paralysis or 
coma. 

Abscess of the Liver usually produces death by peritonitis, except 
when rupture takes place into the lungs. (See Peritonitis.) 

Abscess of the Lung should be treated after death, as a case of 
phthisis. 

Abscess, Retropharyngeal is an abscess occurring between the 
backbone and pharynx; and may suddenly produce death by asphyxia 
or, gradually, from exhaustion. (See Pott’s Disease.) 

Acinesia. (See Lexicon. 

Acne. (See Lexicon.) 

Acute Phthisis (Galloping Consumption) differs from ordinary 
consumption, only in the rapidity of its course. Cavities, infiltration, 
and inflammation of the lungs are found in both cases after death. In 
all such cases, the lungs require special injection with antiseptic fluids? 
both by means of the hollow needle and directly into the trachea ; 
which should be performed before arterial injection is resorted to. In 
all such cases, great care should be taken, and little force should be 
used, in order that frothing from the mouth may be avoided. (See Tuber¬ 
culosis.) 

Acute Softening of the Stomach is in a great majority of cases a 
post-mortem change rather than a distinct disease. In such cases the 
tissues of the stomach are gelatinous and easily rupture if any force is 
used 

Acute Yellow Atrophy of the Liver most frequently follows 
phosphorus or other poisoning. After death, the liver is found flat¬ 
tened, about half its normal size, and with a yellow color like rhubarb, 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


481 


irom fatty degeneration. The kidneys ar6 also found similarly affected, 
and tne whole body is intensely jaundiced. Death, in these cases, 
apparently results from uraemia, which see. 

Addison’s Disease. (See Melasma supra-renalis.) 

Adenie. (F.) A name given by Trousseau to Hodgkin’s disease, 
which see. 

Ague. (See Intermittent Fever.) 

Ague Cake. (S.) (See Lexicon.) 

Alcohol. Poisoning from, acute and chronic. The different 
preparations of alcohol may, when taken in large quantities, produce 
sudden coma and death. The bodies are said to resist decomposition 
for an unusual length of time. There is congestion, and sometimes 
extravasation of the blood in the brain ; the veins everywhere are full of 
blood, and the bladder distended with urine. Chronic alcoholic pois¬ 
oning is of a different nature ; in this latter case the brain appears 
normal, but the lungs are usually congested. 

Albuminuria (S.), is the presence of albumen in the urine, and 
may result from a variety of renal diseases, among which are acute des¬ 
quamative nephritis, non-desquamative nephritis, amyloid kidney, and 
chronic Bright’s disease, which see. Death in these cases results from 
hydraemia and the accumulation of urea in the system. (See Uraemia 
and Dropsy.) 

Alopecia. (See Lexicon.) 

' Amaurosis. (See Lexicon.) 

Amblyopia. (S.) (See Lexicon). 

Amenorrlicea. (See Lexicon.) 

Amyloid Degeneration is a change which may take place in any 
organ whereby it loses its natural color, and is converted into a pale, 
lardaceous substance, with the loss of its proper functions. Some 
think this change is due to the reabsorption of pus. Death, in these 
cases, results from profound anaemia, emaciation, and often dropsy, 
which see. 

Ammonia, Poisoning from. Ammonia swallowed or inhaled acts as 
an irritant poison—(See Poisons), and thus the vapor of strong ammonia 
may cause death from inflammation of the larynx and air passages. 
But the strong solution of ammonia produces corrosion of the mouth, 
oesophagus and stomach. (See Gastritis.) 

Anemia ( Spancemia , Hydrcemia), is used to denote that condition 
of the system in which the density of the blood is diminished, and 
there is deficiency in the blood corpuscles. Where death occurs, in 
such cases, it is preceded by general wasting of the body, absence of fat, 
and occasionally dropsy, which see. 

Anaesthesia. (See Lexicon.) 

31 


482 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Aneurism. A circumscribed dilatation of an artery, dependent on a 
lesion of its coats. True aneurism, is that in which all the coats of an 
artery dilate and unite in forming walls of the pouch ; false aneurism, in 
which inner and middle arterial tunics being ruptured, walls are formed 
by cellular coat and contiguous parts ; and mixed or consecutive false 
aneurism, in which the three coats having at first dilated, inner and 
middle ones subsequently rupture as distension increases; Varicose an¬ 
eurisms are those where a communication has formed between aorta and 
either of the venae cavae, or between this vessel and right ventricle, or 
between aorta and pulmonary artery. Death from aneurism results 
from its rupture into one of the cavities and syncope from hemorrhage. 
In such cases arterial injection is impossible until the rupture can be 
found and the artery ligated above and below. 

Angina Pectoris. An affection characterized by a sudden severe 
burning or constricting neuralgic pain or spasm of a weakened heart, re¬ 
ferred to the lower end of the sternum, extending through the chest to the 
left scapula, and up the sternum to the root of the neck. A tendency to 
syncope exists, associated with intense anxiety, and a sensation of ap¬ 
proaching dissolution, which may ensue from heart failure. 

* Anthrax (See Carbuncle). Not infrequently causes death by re¬ 
absorption of the purulent or gangrenous matter arising from the 
sloughing of tissues. (See Septicaemia and Embolism.) 

Aphonia. (Loss of voice.) An affection of the larynx, causing the 
voice to be whole or partially lost, the patient speaking in a whisper. (S.) 

Aphthae. An ulceration of a mucous membrane, beginning in 
numerous minute vesicles, and terminating in white sloughs. 

Apoplexy. A cerebral disease, characterized by a sudden loss, more 
or less complete, of volition, perception, sensation and motion, depend¬ 
ing on sudden pressure on the brain, due to rupture of a blood vessel 
within the cranium, and the formation of a blood clot. The walls of the 
blood vessels in such cases will usually be found to have undergone fatty 
or calcareous degeneration, and a similar condition generally exists else¬ 
where in the body. Hence great care must be taken in using arte¬ 
rial injections which should be given by preference through the brachial 
or carotid arteries. 

Arsenic, Poisoning from. After death from arsenical poisoning 
the stomach may be empty or contain mucus mixed with blood, and the 
intestines contain a white, rice-water fluid, which must be emptied out. 
The pathological changes aie those of gastritis and enteritis, which see. 

Arthritis. (See Gout and Rheumatism.) 

Ascites. (S.) A collection of serum in the cavity of the peritoneum, 
usually known as dropsy of the abdomen. The preservation of such 
bodies can be greatly aided by removing this fluid by means of a trocar 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


483 


plunged into the median line of the abdomen about midway between the 
umbilicus and piubes. After the water lias been drawn away, arterial 
injection, if properly done, is usually entirely successful. 

Asthma. A paroxysmal nervous difficulty in the breathing depend¬ 
ent on a tonic spasm of the circular fibers of the smaller bronchioles. 
The breathing is accompanied by a wheezing sound, a sense of constric¬ 
tion in the thorax, great anxiety and a difficult cough. Patient cannot 
recline, expects immediate death, which, however, rarely if ever, is pro¬ 
duced by asthma. 

Astigmatism. A defect in the eye, in which the rays are not brought 
into one focus, but converge at different distances, so as t6 form two 
linear images at right angles with each other. 

B. 

Balanitis. An apthous inflammation of the glans penis and pre- 
pue, which should not be mistaken for syphilis. (See Syphilis.) 

* Blood Poisoning. The popular name given to septicsemia or the 
reabsorbtion of dead matter by the circulation and poisoning therefrom. 
This may arise from poison produced within the body. (See Carbuncle, 
Confinements, etc.), or from inoculation of virus from a poisonous 
corpse. (See Wounds, poisoning from.) In either case the post-mortem 
appearances are those of septicaemia and pyaemia. It will be found 
such bodies are very difficult to preserve, for decomposition of tissues 
has commenced before death. Therefore, the strongest available injec¬ 
tions should be used, and continued by hypostatic pressure until the an¬ 
tiseptic and disinfectant fluid begins to ooze through incisions made in 
the tops of the toes, after the method recommended by Kichardson. 
(See page 284.) Others advise that the blood be drawn off from the 
heart and vessels as far as possible to prevent its early decomposition; 
and dropsy, if present, should be treated as elsewhere directed. 

Boils. (Furuncles.) A small inflammatory tumor, never fatal. 

Brain, Diseases of. (Ancemia.) A condition due to general 
diminution of blood, local abstraction of blood, congestion of organs, 
diminished heart's actions, compression or obstruction of arteries sup- 
plying the brain, diminution of the size of the cranial cavity by tumors, 
exudations, etc.; may prove fatal by syncope. 

Hypermmia, of. A condition depending on increased heart's action, 
slight resistent power of cranial blood vessels, increased lateral pressure 
in the carotids, paralysis of the vasomotor nerves of the brain, compres¬ 
sion of the jugular veins, energetic respiratory movements, excessive eat¬ 
ing and drinking. May produce death, either by apoplexy or meningitis, 
which see. 


484 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Bright's Disease. (Albuminuria.) A constitutional affection 
culminating in a variety of structural lesions of the kidneys accompanied 
by separation of serum from the blood, and its presence in the urine, 
connective tissues, and cavities of the body, constituting what is usually 
known as dropsy. For care of dropsical bodies, see dropsy, and for acute 
Bright's disease, see Nephritis desquamans acuta. 

Bronchitis. An inflammation of the bronchi, or air passages leading 
to the pulmonary vesicles ; the natural secretion at first arrested, but 
afterward increased. Rarely produces death except in the case of 
children, or aged people, with whom an extension of the inflammation 
in the smaller bronchioles (capillary bronchitis) may cause death. In 
all such cases arterial and inter pulmonary injections may be freely used; 
for in these cases there is no ulceration or thinning of the walls of the air 
cells, which are intact but plugged with viscid mucus. Discoloration of 
the surface of the body is frequent in such cases and should be treated 
by a proper inclination of the body and the means elsewhere directed. 

Bronciiocele. (Goitre.) A hypertrophied thyroid gland, causing 
enlargement of the neck. Not usually fatal except when occurring as a 
complication of exopthalmic goitre, which see. 

* Bubo. An inflammatory swelling of a lymphatic gland or glands, 
particularly of the groin or axilla, of a specific or non-specific nature. 
(See Syphilis.) 

Burns and Scalds. Lesions caused by the application of fire or 
steam, and not infrequently causing irremediable disfigurements of the 
body. When scalding causes a loosening of the skin this may in a 
measure be remedied by coating the surface of the cadaver with a thin 
alcoholic solution of white shellac, applied lightly with a flat varnish 
brush. 

Calculus (Renal Colic, Bilious Colic) is the formation of a stony 
concretion either in the gall bladder, kidneys, or urinary bladder. It 
may produce death, either from the intense pain produced in its passage, 
from the rupture of the canal through which it passes, or from general 
exhaustion produced by the continued irritation of its presence. (See 
Pyelitis and Cystitis.) 

* Camp Fever. (See Typhus.) 

Cancer is a malignant growth which may supplant, or take the 
place of the normal tissues in almost any organ. Cancers are divided 
into scirrhus, or hard cancer; colloid, or gelatinous cancer; ence- 
phaloid, or brain-like cancer. But while they differ somewhat in 
physical appearance, the tendency of all is to a fatal termination with 
greater or less rapidity, the scirrhus the slowest in its progress. 
According to Rokitansky, it attacks the various organs in about the 
following frequency : ISt, the uterus; 2nd, mamma; 3rd, stomach ; 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


485 


4th, rectum; 5th, lymph-glands; Gth, liver; 7th, bones; 8th, skin; 
9th, brain ; 10th, eye ; 11th, testicle ; 12th, ovary; 13th, tongue ; 
14.th, oesophagus. 

Cancer is not contagious and need cause no fear in handling the body 
which, however, it often frightfully disfigures and generally renders 
unpleasantly fetid even before death. Clarke suggests that in cancer of 
the face, after thoroughly disinfecting, the sloughing cavity may be 
filled up with slightly moistened piaster of Paris, which will harden and 
form an impermeable coating permitting arterial injection, which other¬ 
wise would escape through the ulcerated vessels. The same device 
might be adopted whenever the cancer can be reached, but in the case of 
internal cancer, as of the stomach, we are obliged to rely largely upon 
cavity injections. In cancer of the throat and vagina these cavities 
should be tightly packed with absorbent cotton saturated with some 
reliable disinfecting fluid. 

Cancrum Oris (Cankered Sore Mouth) is an ulcerative inflammation 
of the gums, most frequently observed in children. It is rarely fatal, 
and should be carefully distinguished from noma, which is sometimes 
called bv the same name, but which is almost invariably fatal. 

Glisson's Capsule, Inflammation of. See Cirrhosis of the liver. 

Carbonic Oxide, Poisoning from. This gas is produced from 
burning charcoal, and forms one of the poisonous ingredients of illumi¬ 
nating gas. For post-mortem appearances, see death from suffocation. 
When this gas is taken into the lungs, it combines with the reduced 
haemoglobin, gives the blood a bright cherry-red color, and destroys its 
function as an oxygen carrier. Moreover, since this gas is but slowly 
displaced by oxygen, the animal dies of suffocation. The blood of an 
animal poisoned with this gas will often hold its color for days or weeks. 

Carbolic Acid, Poisoning from. A large number of deaths from 
this poison have been reported within the last few years. In these cases 
the stomach, lungs and intestines are intensely congested, and moreover 
it appears to have a specific effect upon the heart's action producing car¬ 
diac paralysis. 

Carbuncle (Anthrax) is an extensive sub-cutaneous inflammation 
closely resembling a collection of boils. Not usually fatal unless it is so 
situated, as on the back of the neck, that there may be reabsorption of 
the dead material, producing septic meningitis. (See Meningitis and Sep¬ 
ticaemia.) 

Cardiac Exhaustion. See Heart, exhaustion of. 

Cardialgia. (See Lexicon.) 

Catelepsy. (See Lexicon.) 

Catarrh is an excessive discharge from any of the mucous mem¬ 
branes, whether of the nose, mouth, lungs, stomach, intestines or urine 


486 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


tract. It js a usual accompaniment of the inflammation of these various 
organs. (See Coryza, Stomatitis, Laryngitis, Bronchitis, Gastritis, En¬ 
teritis, Nephritis, Cystitis, etc.) 

Catarrh, Epidemic. (See Influenza.) 

Catarrhal Croup. (See Laryngitis.) 

Cephalgia. (See Lexicon.) 

’Cerebritis (Encephalitis, Phrenitis) is an inflammation of the brain 
substance usually accompanied with that of the membranes as well. 
Post-mortem examinations show that this may be due to a large variety 
of causes, such as tubercle, acute hydrocephalus, gray granulations, local 
tumors, etc. 


CEREBRO SPINAL FEVER. 

Cerebro Spinal Meningitis, 

Spotted Fever, 

Malignant Purpuric Fever, 
Epidemic Cerebro Spinal Meningitis, 
Febris Cerebro Spinalis, 

Febris Purpurea Pestifera, 


A malignant epidemic fever attended 
by painful contractions of the muscles 
of the neck, and retraction of the head. 
In certain epidemics it is accompanied 
with profuse purpuric eruptions and 
secondary effusions into the joints and 
spinal membranes. The blood is also 
excessive in fibrin, and the brain shows 
congestion with extensive fluid in the 
. ventricles. 


There is uo proof of personal contagiousness in cerebro spinal fever, 
although the bodies of those dying from this disease are prone to rapid 
decomposition, and need especial promptness in injection. 

Cheloid. (See Keloid.) 

Chicken Pox. (See Varicella.) 

Chilblains. (See Pernio.) 

Chills And Fever. (See Ague.) 

Chloasma. (See Lexicon.) 

Chlorosis is a not infrequent affection of young girls, characterized 
by a peculiar yellowish or greenish pallor of the face, often accompanied 
with oedema of the feet and face. Rarely fatal unless it is accompanied 
with leukaemia, which see. 

Cholhcmia. (See Lexicon.) 

* Cholera (Malignant Cholera, Spasmodic Cholera, Asiatic Cholera.) 
An epidemic disease characterized by vomiting and purging, with evacua¬ 
tions like rice water ; also accompanied with cramps and suppression of 
the urine, and early death from collapse. The causation of cholera is as 
yet unknown ; but by many it is supposed to be due to a bacillus which is 
transmitted from one to another by the cholera dejections. Whether 
this be true or not, the greatest possible care should be taken in handling 
the body of one dying from Asiatic cholera, employing all possible anti¬ 
septic precautions, and air-tight caskets. Cremation is undoubtedly the 




GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


487 


best method of disposing of the bodies and all of the effects of those 
dying from cholera. 

Cirrhosis. A consolidation and contraction of tissue most frequent¬ 
ly occurring in the liver or lungs. (See Liver, Cirrhosis of, and Consump¬ 
tion, Chronic.) 

Coma. (See modes of death.) 

Convulsions. (See Eclampsia.) 

Consumption. (See Phthisis.) 

♦Corrosive Sublimate, Poisoning from. The stomach is usually 
contracted ; there are inflamed and congested, sometimes gangrenous , 
jjatches of the mucous coat. The intestines may appear normal, or there 
may be patches of congestion. In both preceding cases it must be borne 
in mind that the poison may be absorbed by the skin, therefore the oper¬ 
ator should use great care in manipulating the stomach and bowels, but 
on the other hand, the bodies of those thus dying, as a rule, usually well 
resist putrefaction. 

Coryza. (See Lexicon.) 

Coup de Soleil. (See Heat Stroke.) 

♦Cowpox. (See Vaccinia.) 

Coxalgia. (See Hip Disease.) 

Cretenism. (See Lexicon.) 

Cyanosis. (See Lexicon.) 

Cystitis. Inflammation of the bladder which may prove fatal from 
ammonaemia or exhaustion. Same treatment as in uraemia is required. 

D. 

Dengue. A continued fever, characterized by frontal headache and 
severe pains in the limbs, and sometimes by an eruption resembling that 
of measles. Recovery usually takes place, but convalescence is very 
slow. 

Dentition Inordinata. Teething of infancy becomes irregular in 
many ways not necessary here to discuss, and may become a cause of 
death by continued reflex irritation in nervously constituted children. 
(See Eceampsia.) 

Devorandi Difficultas. (See Dysphagia) (S.) 

Diabetes Insipidus. Excessive flow of non-saccharine urine. (S.) 

Diabetes Mellietus. (Melituria, Paruria, Mellita, Glycosuria, 
Saccharine Diabetes.) A disease of assimilation whereby starchy and 
saccharine substances instead of nourishing the body pass off from it as 
glucose in the urine. This stimulates the kidneys to inordinate action 
which is the most marked symptom of the disease. Death, in diabetes, 
results from gradual starvation and exhaustion. 


488 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Diarrhoea. Too frequent fecal evacuations, due to irritation of the 
intestinal mucous membrane. See enteritis, dysentery, typhoid, etc. 
Profuse or long continued diarrhoea may cause death from exhaustion or 
serous hemorrhage, in which latter case the blood is found in the condi¬ 
tion noted under cholera, which see. 

Dilatation of the Bronchi. (See Emphysema.) 

Dilatation of the Heart. (Dilatatio cordis.) Dilatation of the 
heart may arise from fatty deterioration of the heart muscles (see 
Atheroma), so that they distend under pressure, or it may accompany 
hypertrophy resulting from the hearths efforts to perform its work under 
increased pressure. Death usually takes place from heart failure, or 
rupture of its walls with immediate death from hemorrhage. If the 
opening is in the left side of the heart arterial injection may still be re¬ 
sorted to, but it is better in such cases to inject the carotid on one side, 
and the femoral on the other. Great gentleness should be used in in¬ 
jecting in such cases and the same should be observed in cases of dilata¬ 
tion of any of the arteries. (See Aneurism.) 

* Diphtheria. (. Angina Maligna; Cynanche Membranacea , Putrid 
Sore Throat, Malignant Quinsy.) An epidemic and contagious sore 
throat of great severity, and characterized by swollen glands, exudation 
of false membranes on tonsils and adjacent structures. The same exu¬ 
date occurs at times on wounds or by extension from the throat in the 
windpipe where in young children it is almost invariably fatal. Death 
may occur from asphyxia, (which see), or from hemorrage after the 
separation of the membranous slough, or from toxaemia, for in diphtheria 
the whole system is infected with its poison from which even in favora¬ 
ble cases it takes months to recover, as also from the paralysis which 
very frequently follows diphtheria. The bodies of those dying from 
diphtheria should be treated as those dying from small-pox for diphtheria 
is almost equally contagious and is frequently disseminated by funerals. 
In all such cases the most efficient disinfectants should be used and if 
possible the body should be inclosed in an air-tight casket. 

Diplopia. (S.) (See Lexicon.) 

Dipsomania. An intense craving for intoxicating liquors. 

Dissecting Wound. (See Septicaemia.) 

Diuresis. ( Diabetes Insipidus.) A condition in which an excessive 
quantity of pale limpid urine is secreted, free from sugar or other abnor¬ 
mal ingredient. 

Dolor Faucium. (Sore throat.) (See Lexicon.) 

Dropsyl The Accumulation of serous fluids in the cavities or cellular 
tissue of the body. If generally diffused through the latter it is called 
anasarca; if confined to the peritoneal cavity it is known as ascites, and 
elsewhere according to its location as dropsy of the heart, dropsy of the 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


489 


lungs, etc. Dropsical effusions into the closed sacks can be removed by 
tapping them with a trocar after death, inclining the body as may be nec¬ 
essary to cause the lluid to escape by gravity. Anasarca of the legs re¬ 
quires that they should be tightly bandaged after cutting shallow incis¬ 
ions through the skin through which the water will gradually escape and 
the same treatment is appropriate for the arms also. Further directions 
for the embalming of dropsical subjects can be found on page 267. 

Drowning. Is only one form of death from asphyxia. In such 
persons the lungs are generally congested, the stomach, contains some of 
the lluid in which the person has been drowned, and must be emptied 
out by gravity. The abdominal viscera may also be congested, but the 
blood generally remains fluid throughout the body, and is easily removed, 
but these bodies are very prone to turn black on their removal from the 
water if thev have lain there for some days. After a bodv has become 
thoroughly bloated it cannot be restored to its natural condition, but 
this bloating may be prevented by the early and continued use off effi¬ 
cient antiseptics. 

Dysentery. (Dysenteria, Bloody Flux.) An inflammation of the 
colon and rectum, attended with the frequent passage of mucus and 
blood followed by straining. Epidemic dysentery is usually accompanied 
with malarial symptoms and is rapidly fatal from collapse ; ordinary 
dysentery is not so unless it occurs in the aged or those enfeebled by 
previous disease. Autopsies show redness, swelling, softening and ulcera¬ 
tion of the rectum, colon and caecum occasionally, consequently anti¬ 
septic enemata are useful in the preservation of such subjects. 

Dysmenorrikea. (Paramenia Difficilis Menstrua Dolores.) Pain¬ 
ful menstruation, which is a symptom merely of some organic or func¬ 
tional uterine disease. 

Dyspepsia. (Apepsia, Digestio difficultis.) Difficult or painful di¬ 
gestion, which may be a symptom either of organic disease of the stomach 
or merely of its functional derangement. (S.) 

Dysphagia. (See Lexicon.) 

Dysphonia Clericorum. (Clergyman's sore throat.) See Pharyn¬ 
gitis. 

Dyspnoea. (Pseudo-asthma, Respiratio difficultis.) (See Lexicon.) 

E. 

Eclampsia. The name applied to all varieties of convulsions, from 
whatever cause, although by some restricted to the convulsions after 
confinement. (See Puerperal Convulsions.) Death may follow convul¬ 
sions from asphyxia or exhaustion, but the post-mortem appearances are 
by no means constant, passive hypersemia of the brain being found in 


490 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


some cases, arterial in others, cerebral anaemia in others, as well as 
various brain lesions, such as hydrocephalus, encephalitis, tumors, etc. 
Again, convulsions arise from alterations in the blood (toxaemia) and in 
many other cases, absolutely no lesions can be found, for it must be 
remembered that with children convulsions take the place of a chill with 
an adult, and consequently rnav occur whenever an adult might have a 
chill. 

Eclampsia Nutans. (Salaam Convulsions*.) A rare disease of in¬ 
fancy, characterized by frequent bowing motions of the head. 

Ecstasy. (See Lexicon.) 

*Ecthyma. (See Lexicon.) 

Ectropion. (Llepharotosis.) (See Lexicon.) 

Eczema. (Running Scall, Humid Tetter.) An erujition consisting of 
minute vesicles upon reddened skin which is somewhat thickened. 
These vesicles soon fill with an opaque irritating fluid, which forms a 
yellow scab and excoriates the surrounding skin. Never fatal. 

Elephantiasis. (See Lexicon.) 

^'Elephantiasis Gilecorl t m. (Elephantiasis anaesthetica; Lazari 
malum.) See Leprosy. 

Embolism. A term used in medicine to denote the detachment of a 
fibrinous clot in the blood vessels and its being carried forward by 
the circulation until it becomes impacted in a vessel of too small size to 
pass through where it remains permanently. Emboli may be either ven¬ 
ous or arterial. Vessels most liable to be thus plugged are the arteries 
of the base of the brain, the internal carotids, and the femoral and 
brachial. Embolism of the right side of the heart produces pulmonary 
collapse, partial or entire, as well as pleurisy, pulmonary hemorrhage 
and bronchitis. Embolism is one of the causes of sudden death after 
confinement, and also of death from apoplexy, for death occurs in much 
the larger number of cases of embolism either from the causes just named 
or septicaemia arising from the decomposition of the clot. Arterial 
injection is impossible through vessels closed by a fibrinous clot, hence 
one of the less desirable arteries may have to be selected in such a case, 
and very likely cavity embalming may be required in addition, if septic¬ 
aemia has also occurred. (See Septicaemia.) 

Emphysema. (Pneumatosis Pulmonum ; Pneumectasis.) Dilatation 
of the air cells of the lungs attended with gradual effacement of the blood 
vessels distributed over their walls, resulting in anaemia of the lungs on 
the affected side. Not usually fatal. (S.) 

Empyema. (Pyothorax; Ilydrothorax Purulentus.) The formation 
and accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity. (See Pleurisy.) 

Encephaloid Cancer. (Medullary cancer.) (See Lexicon.) 

Enchondroma. A cartilaginous tumor. 


491 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Encephalitis. Inflammation of the brain or its membranes, which 
may produce death from coma, convulsions (effusions) or paralysis, 
which see. 

Endocarditis. (Internal Carditis.) Inflammation of the lining; 
membrane of the heart and its valves, attended with pain and dyspnoea. 
Death results from heart failure or emboli sent into the circulation by 
the breaking loose of fibrinous vegetations which form on the roughened 
heart valves. Heart clots are also of not infrequent occurrence in endo¬ 
carditis and may prove a serious obstacle to arterial injection. (See Em¬ 
bolism. ) 

Endocervicitis. Inflammation of the neck of the womb ) Are 

Endometritis. (Uterine leucorrhoea; Uterine catarrh.) \ usually 
associated ; are not of themselves cause of death, but are symptoms of 
widely different diseases. (See Leucorrhoea.) 

Endosteitis. Inflammation of the inner portions of the bones. (See 
Ostitis.) 

Enteric Fever. (Typhoid fever, Febris enterica.) A continued 
fever characterized by the presence of rose-colored spots on the abdomen, 
diarrhoea and ulceration of the glands of the intestines. The disease is 
very frequently fatal, either from toxaemia, hemorrhage from the bowels, 
exhaustion or complications, such as pneumonia or brain troubles. In¬ 
fection in enteric fever is now generally supposed to originate from the 
typhoid diarrhoea, whose passages should be scrupulously disinfected, 
but the bodies of those dying of typhoid fever can be safely handled 
with the ordinary precautions, such as the use of the hollow needle, to 
draw off the gases which accumulate in the intestines, and the injection 
through the same of some antiseptic fluid to arrest purging. In all such 
cases the head should be kept elevated to prevent discoloration of face, 
and antiseptics and disinfectants should be freely used in the stomach, 
intestines and peritoneal cavities. 

Enteritis. (See Lexicon.) Requires the same treatment as typhoid. 

Entropion. (See Lexicon.) 

Enuresis. (See Lexicon.) (S.) 

Ephelis. (PI. Ephelides.) (See Lexicon.) 

Epilepsy, is a disease due to a variety of causes, usually located in 
the brain or spinal cord, and is characterized by eclamptic attacks of 
increasing severity and frequency until at last the patient dies, either a 
mental wreck or in a convulsion. For post-mortem appearances see 
Eclampsia. 

Epistaxis. (See Lexicon.) 

*Equinia. (See Lexicon.) 

* Erysipelas. Is a specific blood disease probably arising from 
bacterial growths within the system and on the surface of the body. It 


492 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


is characterized by great heat, swelling, and redness of the affected 
parts, and may result fatally from exhaustion or blood-poisoning. 
Puerperal fever is considered by some, a form of internal erysipelas, and 
the bodies of those dying from erysipelas should receive the same treat¬ 
ment as those after puerperal fever, which see. 

Erythema. (See Lexicon.) 

Erytiiromelalgia. Is a condition of active hyperaemia and hyper- 
aesthesisa of the lower extremeties, accompanied with burning pain, red¬ 
ness, increased arterial pulsation and temperature. Not usually fatal. 

^Exanthemata. (See Lexicon.) 

Exhaustion. Is the name given to the general depression of the 
vital powers ; and where it produces death it follows as a result of venous 
thrombosis or cardiac exhaustion ; in the latter case, the heart’s action 
becomes weaker and weaker, with increasing dyspnoea and death usually 
follows from heart clot. 

Exopthalmic Goitre. (Graves’ Disease, Basedow’s Disease.) Is 
an enlargement of the thyroid gland in the neck, prominence of the eye¬ 
balls, and overaction of the heart. After death the heart is sometimes 
found greatly dilated, and at other times the aorta and large vessels are 
atheromatous and very easily ruptured, hence careful injection is required. 



Facial Palsy is a paralysis of the motor nerve of the face. It is 
usually a symptom of the rheumatic inflammation of the nerve sheath, 
and is not fatal. 

*Famine Fever is the name formerly given to relapsing fever, 
which see. 

Fatty^ Degeneration of the Heart is an interstitial change (not 
an accumulation of fat about the heart) whereby the muscles become 
pale and yellowish, and lose their power’of contraction. Death results 
either from rupture or from failure to carry on the circulation. The 
same precautions as directed in atheroma should be observed in these 
cases. 

Fatty Embolism is a bit of fatty matter carried along in the circu¬ 
lation until arrested by its size in one of the smaller vessels. (See 
Embolism.) 

Fatty Liver is the same change occurring in the liver that has 
already been noted under fatty heart. 

*Favus. (See Lexicon.) 

Fever, Cerebral. (See Cerebro-spinal Meningitis.) 

Fever, Intermittent. (See Malaria.) 

Fever, Pernicious. (See Pernicious Fever.) 

*Fever, Puerperal. (See Puerperal Fever.) 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


493 


Fever, Relapsing. (See Relapsing Fever.) 

Fever, Remittent. (See Remittent Fever.) 

*Fever, Scarlet. (See Scarlet Fever.) 

Fever, Typhoid. (See Typhoid Fever.) 

Fever, Typho-Malarial. (See Typho-malarial Fever.) 
♦Fever, Typhus. (See Typhus Fever.) 

♦Fever, Yellow. (See Yellow Fever.) 

Follicular Pharyngitis. . (See Pharyngitis.) 
Frost-Bite. (See Pernio.) 


G. 

Gall Bladder, Affections of. The gall bladder may be dilated 
from obstruction of the gall duct, common bile duct, or local dropsy. It 
may also be filled with gall stones, from which death may result either 
from exhaustion or perforation of the gall duct from prolonged obstruc¬ 
tion and dilatation. These cases may also prove fatal by the production 
of peritonitis from escape of bile in the peritoneal cavity. (See Peritonitis.) 

Galloping Consumption is the name given, formerly, to acute 
phthisis, and differs from ordinary phthisis pulmonalis in no respect 
except in the rapidity of its progress. See Tuberculosis. 

Gall Stones consist of concretions of cholestearin and other ingred¬ 
ients of the bile, which are deposited from it in the gall bladder, and 
cause great pain and sometimes death in their passage thence to the 
duodenum. (See Gall Bladder.) 

Gangrena Oris. (Gangrene of the Mouth.) (See Lexicon.) 

Gangrene of the Lung is local death of lung tissue, and is almost 
invariably fatal. After death in these cases, the trachea and bronchioles 
should be filled with antiseptic fluid, which should be retained there by 
proper means. 

Gastric Intermittent Fever is the name formerly given to the 
sub-gastritis of children. (See Gastritis.) 

Acute Gastritis, is an inflammation of the stomach, and except 
from poison or direct injury, is rare. Chronic gastritis is more frequent, 
but is not usually dangerous to life. 

Gastro-duodenitis, or Gastro-iiepatic Catarrh, is a catarrh of the 
stomach, duodenum and gall duct. Rarely fatal except when it results 
in a closure of the duct and retention of the gall in the gall bladder. 
(See Gall-bladder.) 

General Paralysis is occasionally met with in the insane, and con¬ 
sists of a gradual loss of all mental, muscular and sensory power. It is 
incurable, and by some is considered to be due to granular degeneration 
of the nerve cells. 


404 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Gin Liver is the popular name for cirrhosis of the liver, and con¬ 
sists, at first, in an increase of its bulk and firmness; later it becomes 
smaller, indurated, and irregular in shape, both the liver-cells and ducts 
being in considerable part destroyed. 

^Glanders. (See Lexicon.) 

Glaucoma. (See Lexicon.) 

Glycosuria. (See Diabetes mellitus.) 

Goitre, (Bronchocele) is an enlargement of the thyroid glands, 
and except in case of ex-opthalmic, which see, death rarely results from 
this affection. 

Gonorrhoea. (See Lexicon.) 

Gout (Podagra) a constitutional disease attended with paroxysmal 
attacks, pain and local swelling especially about the toes. Except in 
case of retrocedent, or misplaced gout; that is, that in which some 
internal organ (as the stomach or heart,) is affected, gout is rarely fatal, 
though an extremely painful disease. 

Gouty Colic is retrocedent gout of the stomach. 

Gravel. (Lithiasis) is the formation of calculous deposits in the kid¬ 
neys or bladder. Death may result from the extreme pain, or from 
secondary trouble set up in the bladder or kidneys. (See Nephritis, 
Cystitis.) 

Graves Disease. (See Ex-opthalmic goitre.) 

H. 

Haematemesis . (See Lexicon.) 

Haematuria. (See Lexicon.) 

IIeamophilia (Hemorrhagic Diathesis) is the name given to that 
condition of the system in which continued bleeding follows the slightest 
operation or wound. It may be due either to defect in the walls of the 
blood-vessels or faulty composition of the blood. Death in such cases 
results from exhaustion, and such bodies are found extremely anaemiac. 
See Anaemia. 

Haemorrhage is a symptom of many diseases in which death usually 
results from other causes than the loss of blood . Death from hemor¬ 
rhage is always due to exhaustion and syncope. 

H^emmorrhoids. See Lexicon. 

Hay Fever. The name given autumnal catarrh or asthma; by 
some supposed to be due to the pollen of plants flowering at that time ; 
others consider it a neurosis. 

Heart Clot is a fibrinous clot taking place in the heart before death. 
An ante-mortem clot, is distinguished from a post-mortem clot ; first, by 
the former filling its cavity ; second, by its being grooved by the current of 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


405 


blood ; third, by its being* adherent to the walls of the heart or vessels ; 
and fourth by its structure being laminated. 

Heart Dilatation is a complication accompanying either debili¬ 
tated cardiac muscles, valvular disease, or obstruction in the organs 
remote from the heart, as Bright’s disease of the kidneys. It may, or 
may not, be accompanied by hypertrophy of the heart. All cases of 
death from heart disease are apt to be attended with a fullness of the 
venous system and sometimes of the arterial also. This may be relieved 
in a measure by tapping the heart with a hollow needle and allowing the 
blood to gravitate from the head and face by a proper inclination of 
the body. For directions for locating the heart, see page 6G. 

Heat Stroke (Sun Stroke, Insolatio, Coup cle Soldi) is, probably, of 
two varieties, one of which causes congestion of the brain, and the other 
has, in addition, blood changes. In the first form, death is often pre¬ 
ceded by convulsions, and the post-mortem shows the brain distended 
with blood; in the latter, the difference is that of syncope from apo¬ 
plexy. See Apoplexy. 

Hemicrania. (See Lexicon.) 

Hemiopia. (See Lexicon.) 

Hemiplegia. (See Lexicon.) 

Hemran^esthesia. (See Lexicon.) 

Hemorrhage. (See Haemorrhage.) 

Hemorrhoids. (See Lexicon.) 

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver, and is usually accompanied 
with a similar affection of the duodenum, stomach and gall-duct. It 
may end fatally, by a suspension of the functions of the liver, or result 
in an abcess of the same. (See Abscess.) 

Hepatization. (See Lexicon.) 

Herpes. (See Lexicon.) 

Hiccough. (See Lexicon.) 

Hip Disease (Morbus Coxarius, Coxalgia), inflammation of the hip 
joint, either acute or chronic. A disease of long duration attended with 
atrophy of the muscles over the hip, general weakness, emaciation, and 
suppuration at the joint, resulting in abscess and death from exhaustion 
or septicaemia. (See Amyloid disease.) 

Hob-nailed Liver. See Gin liver. 

Hodgkin’s Disease (Pseudo-leukaemia, is a disease in which the 
spleen and lymphatic glands become enlarged and adenoid, while, at 
the same time, there is a reduction in the number of red blood-corpus¬ 
cles without an increase of the white. 

In this disease the lymphatic glands of the body may become enlarged 
and undergo fibi’oid transformation, but do not suppurate. Death re- 


496 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


suits from the mechanical pressure of these glands, or general debility. 
(See Leukaemia.) 

♦Hooping Cough. (See Pertussis.) 

Hyd atids. (See Lexicon.) 

Hydrocephalus. (Water in the head, Dropsy of the brain), is 
either a passive dropsical effusion within the cranium, or it may result 
from a chronic inflammatory condition of the arachnoid, or the lining 
membrane of the ventricles. Such cases are attended with emaciation 
of the body, general debility, and often an enormous enlargement of the 
head. Death results either from convulsions or general atrophy; in such 
cases it is desirable to pierce the softened bones of the skull with a tro¬ 
car, and draw off the accumulated fluid, restoring the head to something 
of its normal appearance. 

Hydrophobia. [Rabies Canina.) According to Albutt, death from 
hydrophobia shows vascular congestion, serous infiltration, and granular 
degeneration of the the medulla oblongata, spinal cord and brain. In 
some cases oedema of the brain is also found. It is doubtful whether 
hydrophobia has ever been transferred to another person in the handling 
of a human body; but, bearing in mind Pasteups theory on the subject, 
this should be done with great care. 

Hydro-Pneumothorax. (See Lexicon.) 

Hyperemesthesia . (See Lexicon.) 

Hyperesthesia. (See Lexicon.) 

IIypermetropia . (Hypertrophy.) (See Lexicon.) 

Hypertrophy of the Heart. True hypertrophy consists in mus¬ 
cular thickness, as well as increase in size. (See Dilatation.) Hypertrophy 
of the heart is most frequently induced by valvular obstructions or re¬ 
gurgitation compelling an unusual effort to sustain the circulation. 
Bodies of those dying of this disease, are apt to be cyanosed about the 
face and in the body; care should be taken to drive the venous blood 
from the veins. 

Hysteria. Is a morbid excitability and loss of control of the sym¬ 
pathetic nervous system. It is never a fatal disease, but may precede 
epilepsy, which see. 

Hysterical Paralysis. (Functional paralysis.) Is a symptom of 
hysteria, and like it without fatal results. 

I. 

Ichorhemia. (See Septicaemia.) 

Ichthysis. (See Lexicon.) 

Icterus. (See Jaundice.) (S.) 

Impetigo. (See Lexicon.) 

Incontinence of Urine. (See Lexicon.) (S.) 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


40? 


Infantile Paralysis. (See Poliomyelitis.) 

Inflammation of the Bladder. (See Cystitis.) 

Inflammation of the Bowels. (See Enteritis and Peritonitis.) 

Inflammation of the Brain. (See Encephalitis and Meningitis.) 

Inflammation of the Bronchia. (See Bronchitis.) 

Inflammation of the Ear. (See Otitis.) 

Inflammation of the Endocardium. (See Endocarditis.) 

Inflammation of the Kidney. (See Nephritis.) 

Inflammation of the Larynx. (See Laryngitis.) 

Inflammation of the Liver. (See Hepatitis.) 

Inflammation of the Lungs. (See Pneumonia.) 

Inflammation of the Mouth. (See Stomatitis.) 

Inflammation of the Peritoneum. (See Peritonitis.) 

Inflammation of the Pleura. (See Pleurisy.) 

Inflammation of the Stomach. (See Gastritis.) 

Inflammation of the Tonsils. (See Quinsy.) 

Inflammation of the Veins. (See Phlebitis and Arteritis.) 

Influenza. (Epidemic Catarrh.) Inflammation of the nasal and 
bronchial mucous membrane, probably due to a specific organism. Not 
fatal. 

Insanity. (Mental Alienation, Unsound Mind, Madness.) A general 
term used to express all unsound mental conditions from melancholy to 
acute mania, which see. 

Insolatio. (See Heatstroke.) 

Insomnia, (S.) (See Lexicon.) 

Intercostal Neuralgia. Neuralgia of the intercostal nerves. (S.) 
(See Neuralgia.) 

Intermittent Fever. (Periodic Fever, Ague, Chills and Fever, 
Paludal Fever.) A disease due to a specific poison, probably bacterial, 
arising in marshy grounds. It is characterized by periodic chill, fever 
and sweating. Where death results from protracted intermittent, it is 
due to anaemia and enlargement of the spleen and liver. Dropsy is not 
an infrequent complication of this disease. (See Dropsy.) 

Intestinal Obstruction is due to a large variety of causes, such as 
cicatrices, tumors, cancers, intussusception, or angulation of the bowels. 
Whatever may be its cause, unless promptly relieved, death results from 
peritonitis or perforation. In all such cases rectal and abdominal inject¬ 
ions should be used for the preservation of the body. 

Intussusception. (Invagination.) A drawing down of one part of 
the bowel into that below, like a glove finger may be drawn back into 
itself. Death, in these cases, results from obstruction of the bowels. 
(See above.) 

Iritis. (See Lexicon.) 

32 


498 


4 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Ischuria. (S.) (See Lexicon.) 

*Itch. (See Scabies.) 

J, 

*Jail Fever. (See Typhus Fever.) 

Jaundice. (Icterus.) A symptom of many diseases of the liver; 
especially those in which there is an inflammation of the bile duct, or 
reabsorption of the bile pigments by the blood. 

K, 

Keloid ( Kelts CJieloidea). (See Lexicon.) 

Keratitis. (See Lexicon.) 

Kidney", AffecItons of, (See Nephritis and Bright's disease.) 

Knock Knees ( Genua valga.) (See Lexicon.) 

L, 

Labio-Glosso-Pharyngeal Paralysis is a paralysis of the lips, 
tongue, tongue, and pharynx (S). 

Lardaceous Liver (See Amyloid). 

Laryngismus Stridulus (Laryngo-Spasmus, Thymic asthma, Cere¬ 
bral Croup, Child Crowing), a neurosis occuring chiefly in young child¬ 
ren, manifesting itself by temporary closure of the glottis, which may 
cause death frem asphyxia, which see. 

Lepra ( Psoriasis ). (See Lexicon.) 

*Leprosy" ( Lepra Hebrceoruni) , is the leprosy described in the Bible. 
It is rarely, if ever, seen in this country, and is possibly contagious. 

Leucocy t th^emia is that abnormal condition of the blood, in which 
its white corpuscles are largely increased in number. Death is the 
inevitable result of this disease by progressive anaemia. (See Anaemia.) 

Leucoderma ( Chloasma album , Achroma). (See Lexicon.) 

Leucorrikea (Fluar Albus). (See Lexicon. 

Leukaemia. (See Leucocythaemia.) 

Lichen ( Papules siccai). (See Lexicon.) 

Lightning, Death from. In persons killed by lightning the inter¬ 
nal viscera may be so lacerated and disorganized that the injection of 
the embalming fluid may be rendered impossible ; nothing more can be 
done than local application and cavity injection. 

Lithiasts. (See Gravel.) 

Liver, Affections of. (See Acute Yellow Atrophy, Fatty Liver, 
and Amyloid Degeneration.) 

Lock Jaw. (See Tetanus.) 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


409 


Locomotor Ataxy ( Ataxic Paraplegia , Tabes Dorsalis). A disease 
of the spinal cord, characterized by loss of co-ordination of the lower 
limbs. A disease of slow operation, in which the post-mortem shows 
.atrophy and degeneration of the lower part of the spinal cord. 

Lumbago ( Rheumatismus Dorsalis, Rheumatism of the lumbar mus¬ 
cles). (See Rheumatism.) 

Lupus. ( Ulcus Tuberculosus). (See Lexicon.) 

M. 

Macula (Plural ae). (See Lexicon.) 

Malarial Fever. (See Intermittent.) 

Mania. (See Insanity.) 

Mania a Potu. (See Delirium Tremens.) 

^Measles (Morbilli). An extremely contagious disease, character¬ 
ized by catarrh, bronchitis, and a rosy eruption upon the skin. Death, 
when it occurs, results from some complication, the most fatal of which 
are bronchitis and purpura, which see. 

Melancholia. (S.) (See Lexicon.) 

Melan^emia (S.) is that abnormal condition, sometimes following 
malarial fever, in which the coloring matter of the blood extravasates 
from it and is deposited in the liver and other organs. 

Melasma Supra-Renalis (Addison’s Disease), xl systemic disease, 
characterized by a bronze-like coloration of the skin, general anaemia, 
and debility, and the only lesion found after death, being a lardaceous 
change of the supra-renal capsules. Similar changes undoubtedly occur 
in the gastric and intestinal tubercles. 

^Membranous Croup (True Croup, Fibrinous Laryngitis). Inflam¬ 
mation of the larynx, in which a fibrinous or diphtheritic membrane 
appears on the inner surface of the trachea, producing death by as¬ 
phyxia or general poisoning. Bodies of those dying from this disease 
should be handled with the greatest care, for it is probably infectious; 
and the greatest care should be taken to thoroughly disinfect the cavities 
of the mouth and wind-pipe, where decomposition frequently begins 
before death. 

Meningitis. An inflammation of the membranes of the brain, is 
usually associated with that of the brain substance, and may result either 
from direct injury, tubercle or specific causes. (See Cerebro-Spinal Men¬ 
ingitis.) The post-mortem appearances are those of congestion, opacity 
and thickening of the membranes of the brain, while the brain itself 
shows reddened points, and sometimes an excess of serum in its ventri¬ 
cles, with softening of the grey or white substances. 

Menorrhagia. (See Lexicon.) 


500 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Mentagra. (Sycosis). (See Lexicon.) 

Mercurial Palsy is that produced in those who are compelled to 
work for some time in the vapors of the metal. Death here results from 
exhaustion and diarrhoea. 

Methomania. (See Lexicon.) 

Monomania. (See Lexicon.) 

*Morbilli. See Measles.) 

Morbus Addisonii. (See Melasmus Supra-Renalis.) 

Morbus Coxarius. (See Hip Disease.) 

Mucous Disease is the name given by Dr. Eustace Smith, to a va¬ 
riety of disease chiefly met with in children, and characterized by ex¬ 
cessive mucous secretion from all of the mucous surfaces. Where death 
results from this disease, it follows as a result of marasmus, from failure 
to assimilate food. 

Muguet. (See Thrush.) 

*Mumps. (Parotitis Contagiosa, Cynanche Parotidea.) A specific 
inflammation of the parotid gland, which may also inflame from other 
causes. Contagious, but rarely, if ever fatal. 

Myalgia. (See Lexicon.) 

Myelitis (Inflammation of the Spinal Marrow) may show after 
death, diffuse redness and opacity of the membranes of the cord, effusion 
of the serum, adhesion, and even ulceration and gangrene. (See Cere- 
bro-Spinal Meningitis. 

Myocarditis is an inflammation of the muscular substance of the 
heart. (See Endocarditis.) 

N. 

NtEVUS.. (Birth Mark.) (See Lexicon.) 

Nephritis. (See Bright's Disease.) 

Nephritis Desquamativa Acuta. (Acute Bright's Disease.) An in¬ 
flammation of the tributes of the kidney, accompanied with a casting off 
its lining cells (casts) the presence of albumen in the urine, and the oc¬ 
currence of dropsy in the limbs and elsewhere. Death occurs from ex¬ 
haustion or uraemea. (See Dropsy.) 

Nettle Rash. (See Urticaria.) 

Neuralgia. (See Lexicon.) 

Night Terrors. A reflex neurosis, probably produced by irritation 
in the intestinal canal. May precede epilepsy, which see. 

Nitre. Death from poisoning, like all other irritant poisoning is 
attended with intense congestion of the stomach, and sometimes even 
perforation, producing peritonitis, which see. 

Nitric Acid. Death from. In these cases the stomach contains a 
viscous, sanguinolent, yellow or greenish fluid, which ought to be got rid 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


501 


of before injecting. 'The lungs will also be found highly congested, and 
the blood must therefore be emptied out. The acid, nitrate of mercury, 
and muriatic acid, produce about the same changes after death as those 
of nitric acid. 

Nursing Sore Mouth. (See Ulcerative Stomatitis and Anaemia.) 

Nutmeg Liver. (See Cirrhosis of the Liver.) 

o. 

Obstruction of the Bowels may be due to tumors, angulation, in¬ 
tussusception or fecal accumulation. If not promptly relieved it is ra¬ 
pidly fatal. For precautions to be observed after death, see Intussusception. 

Odontalgia. (See Lexicon.) 

(Edema of the Glottis may result directly from injury, or as a 
complication in laryngitis, typhoid, etc. It is exceedingly dangerous, 
often proving fatal from asphyxia, which see. 

(Esophagus, Stricture of. May be functional or organic; in the 
latter case, death usually results from slow starvation. (See Marasmus.) 

Oidium Albicans. (See Thrush.) 

Oinomania. (See Lexicon.) 

Onychia. (See Lexicon.) 

Onyxis. (See Lexicon.) 

Opthalmia. (See Lexicon.) 

Opium, Poisoning from. The post-mortem appearance of persons who 
have been killed by the preparations of opium are negative. Intense 
congestion of the brain and lungs are spoken of by most authors, but 
they seem to depend chiefly on the way in which the patient dies, rather 
than on any specific action of the drug. 

Opisthotonos. (See Lexicon.) 

Orthopnoea. (S.) (See Lexicon.) 

Otalgia (S.) (See Lexicon.) 

Otitis. (See Lexicon.) 

Ovarian Dropsy (Ovarian tumor), is a cystic degeneration of the 
ovaries which, unless removed by the surgeon, produces death either 
from exhaustion, or from peritonitis caused by its rupture in the abdom¬ 
inal cavity. (See Peritonitis.) 

Oxalic Acid, Poisoning from. The autopsy shows generally the 
stomach to contain a dark, brown, mucous fluid, but in some cases of 
death from this poison there are no well marked lesions. There are no 
special difficulties in the preservation of such bodies. 

P. 

Paralysis. (Palsy.) A disease characterized by a loss, or great 
diminution of the power of the voluntary motion, affecting any part of 


502 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


the body. In long continued paralysis the arteries upon the affected 
side may become diminished in caliber from inaction, and the body will 
require longer injection by the gravity method than is ordinarily re¬ 
quired. A second injection is always advisable in such cases. 

* Parotitis. (Mumps.) An inflammation of the parotid and salivary 
glands., probably specific, and certainly in some cases contagious and epi¬ 
demic. 

Parturition. (See Puerperal fever and hemorrhage.) 

Pericarditis. (See Heart, dropsy of.) 

* Peritonitis. An inflammation of the serous membrane lining the 
cavity of the abdomen, and covering the viscera contained therein. An 
exceedingly fatal and at times apparently an infectious disease. After 
death there is found intense injection of the peritoneum, whose cavity 
contains a sero-purulent fluid, which is intensely poisonous, knd may 
produce blood poisoning in its most virulent form. India rubber 
gloves should be used in handling such cases, as death may result from 
the slightest scratch, especially in cases of puerperal peritonitis. The 
abdomen is usually greatly distended with gas, which should be allowed 
to escape through a trocar or hollow needle, which may then be used to * 
thoroughly disinfect the peritoneal cavity. The blood in these cases is 
thoroughly septic, and if possible should be drawn off before arterial in¬ 
jection is resorted to; audit should be remembered that such cases are 
among those which are exceedingly difficult to preserve. 

Pertussis. (See Lexicon.) 

*Phagedaena. A maglignant ulcer which spreads very rapidly, 
and may produce death from exhaustion or hemorrhage. (See Syphilis. ) 

Pharyngitis. Inflammation of the pharynx. 

Phosphorus, death from poisoning. The post-mortem appearances 
vary with the length of time which lapses after death. If death takes 
.place in a few hours, the only lesions are those produced by the direct 
action of the poison. The contents of the stomach, which must be 
evacuated, are often mixed with blood, and may have the peculiar smell 
of phosphorus. It is said that the mucous membrane of the stomach 
may emit a phosphorescent light in the dark. If death does not ensue 
until after several days, the lesions are more marked; the body is usually 
jaundiced, and there may be found a congestion of the liver, or there 
may be a small hemorrhage into the liver tissue. 

Phlebitis. An inflammation of a vein or veins, characterized by a 
redness along its course, a hardness and cord-like line, tender to the touch. 

Phlegmasia Dolens. (Milk Leg, see Lexicon.) 

Phthisis (Pulmonary Consumption, Tuberculosis.) The growth or 
exudation of a peculiar material in the form of a tubercle, which under¬ 
goes various changes in the lungs, associated with constitutional phenom- 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


5o;3 

ena of scrofula and progressive wasting. (See Tuberculosis and Acute 
Phthisis.) W hat is known as chronic phthisis is really a cirrhosis of the 
lung subsequent to chronic bronchitis, and may not show any cavities or 
suppuration after death, but simply condensation of lung tissue. In ordi¬ 
nary phthisis, however, there is a destruction of the lung tissue which 
leaves the capillaries exposed, and very prone to rupture under slight 
pressure, hence the frequency of purging from the mouth after arterial 
injection in such cases. This may be avoided by securely plugging the 
windpipe with antiseptic cotton pushed down into its place through the 
nostrils or mouth, or even by an incision through the neck. Direct in¬ 
jections into the lung tissue by the hollow needle are also advisable in 
these cases. 

Pii.es. (See Haemorrhoids.) 

Pityriasis. A skin disease cnaracterized by irregular patches of 
small, thin scales, which repeatedly form and separate, unattended with 
inflammation, and never collecting into crusts'. 

Placenta Previa is an abnormal attachment of the placenta over 
the os uteri. The hemorrhage is occasioned, first, by the slight dilata¬ 
tion of the cervix uteri, which takes place some weeks before delivery and 
detaches a portion of the placenta ; and subsequently, by the still further 
dilatation which is affected during labor, during which death from hem¬ 
orrhage very frequently takes place, but .the preservation of such bodies 
presents no great difficulties. 

Pleurisy (Pleuritis). An inflammation of the serous membrane that 
lines the cavity, and covers the viscera of the thorax, characterized by a 
febrile chill, followed by an acute, sharp pain in some part of the chest, 
respiratory actions being rapid but not complete, dry, short cough, hard, 
quick pulse. 

Pleurodynia. A rheumatic pain, more orless acute in the muscles 
or fibrous textures of the chest, most commonly in the left side, in the 
infra-axillary and infra-mammary regions, increased by deep inspirations, 
cough, movements of trunk or arms, and by pressure on both ribs and 
intercostal spaces. 

Pneumonia (Pneumonitis). An inflammation of the pulmonary 
tissue, which in its acute sthenic and uncomplicated form runs a definite 
course. It is expressed by severe febrile symptoms, which come on sud¬ 
denly and in a few hours attain great intensity undergoing no less sudden 
abatement between the fifth and tenth days, in proportion to the severity 
of the disease, at which time the local lung lesions, the result of the in¬ 
flammation are very intense, but are eventually removed. 

Porrigo. (See Tinea Favus.) 

Prolapsus Ani. A failing down of the extremitiy of the rectum. 

Prostatitis. An inflammation of the prostate gland. 


504 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Prurigo. A papular eruption affecting the whole surface of the 
skin or confined to some particular part, accompanied with an intense 
itching. 

Prussic Acid, Poisoning from. The skin is usually livid, and the 
muscles contracted ; the stomach is congested, and the venous system un¬ 
usually full of blood. The most characteristic condition, when this acid 
is present, is the odor of bitter almonds, exhaled from the stomach and 
tissues. 

Psoriasis. A condition of the skin, of a rough, scaly character, 
continuous, or in separate irregular patches. 

* Puerperal Fever. A continued fever, communicated by conta¬ 
gion, occurring in connection with child birth, often associated with 
extensive local lesions, especially of the uterine system, peritonitis, effu¬ 
sions in the serous and synovial cavities, phlebitis, and diffuse suppura¬ 
tion. (See Peritonitis.) 

Purpura. A disease in which the blood or capillary vessels through¬ 
out the system, one or both are altered. Evident constitutional distur¬ 
bances, manifested by disorder of digestive, assimilative, and excretory 
functions attended by languor and debility, not usually attended with 
fever. Small, round, red or deep purple colored spots are formed on the 
surface. Hemorrhages from mucous membranes are common. 

*Py^emia. A purulent state of the blood, in which pus globules 
are found floating among the proper blood disks. (See Septicaemia.) 

Pyrosis. (Heart Burn.) A disease characterized by a pain in the 
stomach, with copious eructation of a watery insipid fluid. (S.) 



Rabies. (See Hydrophobia.) 

Rachitis. (See Lexicon.) 

Rectitis. Inflammation of the rectum. 

*Relapsing Fever. (Famine Fever,Recurrent Fever,Five Day Fever, 
Seven Day Fever, Bilious Remittent Fever, Synocha.) An infectious dis¬ 
ease characterized by a recrudescence after a certain definite number of 
days of the symptoms of the fever, after their apparent subsidence, viz.; 
rigors, vomiting, enlarged liver, delirium, etc. The post-mortems 
in these cases show enlargement of the spleen and granulated and cre- 
nated red blood corpuscles. As the disease is supposed to be contagious 
the body should be treated as in all cases of contagious disease. 

Remittent Fever. (Walcheren Fever, Jungle Fever, Bilious Re¬ 
mittent, African Fever.) A fever closely resembling intermittent fever 
except that there is no entire intermittence of the fever but simply an 
abatement between its paroxysms. Examination after death shows an 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


505 


enlarged and bronzed liver, the spleen also enlarged and congested and 
frequently congestion of other organs as complications. 

Rheumatism. Two forms, the acute and chronic; the former is a 
formidable disease, owing to the suffering it causes, the intensity of the 
fever, and the damage it so frequently inflicts upon the heart. A su¬ 
perabundance of lactic acid in the system is the supposed cause. The 
latter form is sometimes a sequel of rheumatic fever, but generally a 
separate constitutional affection. Very common in old age. The 
fibrous textures around the joints, or fibrous envelopes of the nerves, or 
the aponeurotic sheaths of the muscles, or the fasciae and tendons, or 
the periosteum, are the parts which suffer. Death from rheumatism 
usually results from heart complications (See Heart, Diseases of.) 

Rickets. ( Rachitis; Osteomalacia Infantum .) A disease peculiar 
to childhood, as osteomalacia is to adults. The bones as they grow re¬ 
main soft and flexible and bend under the weight of the body. Rarelv 
fatal except from lung complications. (See Capillary Bronchitis.) 

Roseola (Rose Rash, False Measles, Epidemic Roseola). A non- 
contagious, inflammatory affection of the skin. One of the Exanthe¬ 
mata and never fatal. 

* Rubeola (Rotheln, Scarlatina Morbillosa, German Measles). A 
compound of measles and scarlatina. 

Rupia (Ulcus Atonicum, Ecphlysis Rhypia). A non-contagious 
skin disease occurring in debilitated constitutions, and especially in 
systems contaminated with syphilis. (See Syphilis.) 

O 

o. 

Saint Anthony's Fire. The popular name for erysipelas. 

* Scabies (Psora, Itch). A contagious, troublesome skin disease, 
attended with great itching, which is increased by warmth, and is due to 
an animal parasite called the Acarus Scabiei, which can be readily com¬ 
municated to the hands of the embalmer. 

* Scarlet Fever (Scarlatina). An infectious fever, characterized 
by scarlet efflorescence of skin and mucous membrane of fauces and ton¬ 
sils; the efflorescence commencing about second day of fever, and declin¬ 
ing about fifth. Often accompanied by inflammation of throat, and 
sometimes of submaxillary glands. The corpses of those dying with this 
disease are exceedingly contagious and should never be exposed in an 
open coffin, even after antiseptic injections. It is well to anoint these 
bodies with carbolated vaseline, as many supposed the contagion is car¬ 
ried by flying scales from the skin, and this may be prevented by the use 
of unguents. The post-mortem appearances of scarlet fever are those of 
septicaemia, and often with those of diphtheria added. (See Diphtheria.) 


506 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Sciatica (Neuralgia Ischiadica, Ischialgia, Coxalgia). Acute 
pain in the sciatic nerve, due often to rheumatism. 

Sclerema (Algide (Edema). A peculiar disease of new-born 
infants, consisting of partial or universal induration of subcutaneous 
areolar tissue, with serous effusion and great coldness of the body. 

Scrofula (Serophula, Tabes Glandularis, Struma, King’s Evil). 
A constitutional disease attended with enlargement of the lymphatic 
glands which often suppurate. It is rarely directly fatal, but may lead 
to death by producing amyloid degeneration or tuberculosis, which see. 

Scurvy (Scorbutus). A complex, morbid condition of the body 
caused by long-continued privation of fresh, succulent vegetables or 
fruit, or their preserved juices. 

* Septicaemia (Septaemia, Putrid Infection). Contamination of the 
blood — blood-poisoning — from the absorption of putrefying matters 
either from the body itself or by external inoculation. (See Wounds 
from Dissection.) Death from septicaemia results either from pyaemia, 
phlebetis or thrombosis, which see. Putric decomposition really sets 
in before death in such cases, and hence such subjects are very difficult 
of preservation. The early removal of the septic blood and the most 
thorough arterial and cavity injections will be necessary in these cases, 
which often, notwithstanding the greatest care, prove disappointing. 

Simple Continued Fever (Febricula, Ephemera). A mild dis¬ 
ease, having a variable duration of from one to ten days, and rarely if 
ever fatal. 

*Sm all-Pox (Variola). A continued, infectious fever, attended 
with an eruption and due to absorption of a specific j^oison. The disease 
would probably become extinct, were vaccination universally and effi¬ 
ciently performed, and cremation resorted to immediately after death. 
It should be remembered that the corpse of one dying of small-pox prob¬ 
ably remains for years a source of contagion, and no time should be lost 
in as quickly as possible disposing of these dead with all of the antisep¬ 
tic precautions recommended by the various state boards of health. 

Spanjemia. Thin or poor blood. (See Anaemia.) 

Spermatorrhoea (Spermorrhcea, Gonorrhoea Vera, Profiuvium 
Seminis, Pollution). A deranged state of mental and bodily health, 
due to the too frequent escapes of the seminal fluid. Masturbation the 
most common cause. 

Spina Bifida ( Hydrorachitis , Cleft Spine). A congenital defi¬ 
ciency of the posterior laminae and spinous process of one or more 
vertebrae, owing to which there is an undue distension of the membranes 
of cord with cerebro-spinal fluid. 

Spinal Hemorrhage ( Myelorrhagia ). An apoplexy of the cord 
producing paralysis and death. (See Paralysis.) 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


50? 


Strangulation, Death from. (Hanging, etc.) In this instance 
the carotid arteries are often ruptured ; the heart, the lungs, and the 
viscera are usually congested. In death from suffocation, the same 
symptoms except rupure of the arteries are present. As in case of 
sunstroke, decomposition sets in very rapidly, and requires an immed¬ 
iate check ; the lungs will frequently be found congested, and should be 
dealt with as in pneumonia 


Strychnia Nux Vomica, etc., Poisoning from. Incases of pois¬ 
oning from these, the cramping and contraction of the muscles relax 
after death, but the brain remains congested with blood and may produce 
discoloration of the face, unless especial means are taken to prevent this. 

Sulphuric Acid, Poisoning by, produces most of its effects upon 
the stomach which might be perforated, as also the adjoining viscera 
might be blackened and softened by the action of the acid. The blood 
is thickened, sirupy, acid, and the body maybe partially preserved from 
putrefaction, as sulphuric acid retards the decomposition of the blood. 

♦Syphilis (Lues Venerea, Venereal Diseases, Pox). Two forms, 
primary and constitutional. Primary occurs as a specific ulcer or 
chancre, the ulcer appearing on the part to which the virus has been 
directly applied. Constitutional, the result of indurated or infecting 
chancres. Many cases of chronic ill health are due to it; while it is often 
the cause of obscure diseases of the vital organs, in which gummy tumors 
are often found. It should be remembered that the ulcers of syphilis 
are exceedingly infectious, and that their poison may be transferred by 
means of instruments, clothing, etc. Probably the virus from these will 
not affect an unbroken skin, but the minutest break or prick with a 
svphilized needle may afford an entrance for the poison that, without 
treatment, will remain in the system for years. There can hardly be too 
great care taken in handling bodies that show sores about the genitals 
enlarged glands in the groins, or suspicious ulcers anywhere. It would 
be wise in all such cases to employ rubber gloves, which should he de¬ 
stroyed after once Using, and all instruments and needles, etc., should 
either be replaced or most thoroughly disinfected with strong alcohol 
and boiled in an antiseptic solution. In case of suspected infection, im¬ 
mediately apply strong alcohol to the wound and consult some compe¬ 
tent physician in regard to subsequent treatment. 



Tetanus (Lock Jaw). A disease in which there is tonic contrac¬ 
tion of the voluntary muscles, usually beginning with those of the jaw. 
Death usually results from exhaustion, and there are no characteristic 
post-mortem lesions, although Dr. Allbutt reports having found soften- 


508 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


ing of the cord in four cases; and erysipelas is not an unusual complica¬ 
tion, especially in the lock jaw of new-born children. 

Thrombosis, is caused by the formation of some foreign material in 
the circulation, and its being carried forward by the blood current until 
arrested by the small caliber of the vessel. 

The word is usually used instead of embolism, but should be restricted 
to the formation of such a plug in the place where the arrested circula¬ 
tion takes place. Aseptic degeneration of these clots may cause septi¬ 
caemia and death. (See Septicaemia.) 

Thrush. A disease of the mouth due to a growth on the mucous 
membrane of the oidium albicans. 

Thyro-Cardica. (See Exopthalmic Goitre.) 

Tic douloureux. (F.) (See Lexicon.) 

Tonsilitis. (See Lexicon ) 

Toxaemia is literally blood-poisoning, and may result from contam¬ 
ination of the blood with poisons generated outside of the body, as 
small-pox, malaria, etc., or from absorption of those produced within 
the body. (See Leucomaines, Pyaemia, and Septicaemia.) 

Trachetis. (See Croup.) 

Trichina. (See Lexicon.) 

Trismus Kascentium (Infantile lock jaw.) (See Tetantus.) 

Tuberculosis. (Consumption) is defined by Hartshorne as a consti¬ 
tutional vice in the formation of blood whose plasma is defective in nu¬ 
trition so that it forms, instead of healthy tissue, aborted blastema (tis¬ 
sues forming material) which accumulates as a deposit in one or many 
organs. This substance is called tubercle, and according to Rokitansky, 
is deposited in the different organs in about the following order of fre¬ 
quency: 


Lungs. 

Spleen. 

Intestines, 

Kidneys, 

Lymph-glands. 

Liver, 

Larynx, 

Bones, 

Serous membranes, 

Uterus, 

Brain, 

Testicles. 


Tubercle is distributed either in minute regularly formed masses, 
(miliary tubercle), or in irregular deposits which are known as infiltrated 
tubercle; and may be either semi-transparent and gray, or yellow, 
opaque, and cheesy. Tubercle may harden into a horny-like substance, 
or, more frequently, it softens and is thrown out by suppuration from 
the tissues in which it is deposited. Death consequently results from the 
exhaustion produced by this continued suppuration or from hemorrhage 
caused by rupture into the blood-vessels surrounding these deposits. 

It should be remembered that the body of one dying from tubercle 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


509 


is undergoing disintegration, especially in those parts in which the tu¬ 
bercle has been deposited, and which consequently require injection with 
the hollow needle, and the greatest care in using arterial injection in or¬ 
der that the blood-vessels in the already enfeebled tissues may not give 
way, but on the other hand the wasting character of the disease reduces 
the flesh to dry parchment, or nearly so, leaving but a very small portion 
of water in the system. Hence, as putrefaction is impossible in the 
absence of moisture, therefore the decomposition of such substances as 
remain ensues only by a process of slow combustion or oxidation due to 
the slow union of oxygen with these substances. 

Tubercular Meningitis is a meningitis due to a deposition of 
tubercle in the membranes of the brain. (See Meningitis.) 

Typhlitis, is an inflammation of the caecum or surrounding tissues. 
The formation and internal rupture of an abscess is the usual cause of 
death in these cases. (See Abscess.) 

*Typhoid Fever (Nervous Fever, Continued Fever, Enteric Fe\er), 
is a continued fever due to a specific inflammation and infiltration witli 
subsequent ulceration of the Peyer’s patches or glands of the intestines. 

Heath results from exhaustion, perforation of the intestine, or inter¬ 
nal hemorrhage. Special care should be taken in the disinfection of the 
passages from the bowels in typhoid fever; for while the disease itself is 
not contagious, the stools, if left to undergo fermentation, undoubtedly 
tend to reproduce the disease. Consequently great care should be taken 
in the disinfection of the entire alimentary canal after death; for in these 
cases there is an especial tendency to post-mortem purging and frothing. 

Typho-Malarial Fe\ t er is a disease in which the features of inter¬ 
mittent and typhoid fever are supposed to be commingled. 

Typhoid Pneumonia. (Asthenic Pneumonia, or Pneumonia Com¬ 
plicating Typhoid.) (See Pneumonia.) 

*Typhus Fever. (Ship Fever, Camp Fever, Jail Fever.) A very 
fatal type of continued fever resembling in many of its features typhoid, 
but without its characteristic lesions in the intestine. The only abnormal 
thing shown in the post-mortem is that the blood is less coagulable and 
darker in color; and passive congestion of the various organs, as the liver, 
brain and lungs, especially the last, is generally found. (See Typhoid for 
treatment of the body after death.) 

U. 

Ulcer of the stomach is not an infrequent cause of death in elderly 
people. Death results from slow starvation, perforation, and peritonitis 
or hemorrhage, which see. 

Ulcerative Sore Throat. (See Diphtheria.) 


510 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


Uraemia (S.) is retention in the blood of the material which should 
he excreted by the kidneys as urea. Uraemia is the usual cause of death 
in Bright’s disease v and dropsy, where life is terminated by vomiting, 
diarrhoea, convulsions or coma. (See Bright’s Disease.) 

Urticaria. (See Lexicon). 

Uterine Hemorrhage. (See Hemorrhage.) 

V. 

Valvular Disease of the Heart is usually a symptom of other 
cardiac troubles, as pericarditis, calcareous degeneration, or from simple 
thickening or deposit of fibrinous or fatty material. The mitral, or 
aortic valve may be thus affected primarily, and the tricuspid, or pul¬ 
monary, secondarily. The result of this imperfect closure of the valves 
is to produce dilatation of the heart, and death from heart exhaustion 
or embolism, which see. 

Varicella (Chicken-Pox). (See Lexicon.) 

* Variola (Small-Pox) may be discrete or confluent, modified, or var¬ 
ioloid, or malignant. Death usually ensues, in small-pox, from pneu¬ 
monia or pyaemia, and it need scarcely here be noted that the most fre¬ 
quent cause of the spread of the disease is the shipping of the bodies of 
those dying of it from one point to another Such corpses should be 
immediately buried with all possible antiseptic precautions, ait the near¬ 
est possible point to the place of their death. 

Verruca. (See Lexicon.) 

Vitiligo. (See Lexicon.) 

W. 

Wasting Palsy (Cruveilhier’s Disease) is a form of paralysis in 
which the muscles of a limb or the whole body, first lose their power and 
then gradually emaciate. No lesion has yet been found in the post¬ 
mortem examination. 

Waxy Liver. (See Amyloid.) 

Whitlow. (See Lexicon.) 

Winter Fever. (See Typhoid Pneumonia.) 

Wristdrop. (See Lead Poisoning). 

Writer’s Cramp. (See Lexicon.) 

Wounds of various kinds, knife, pistol, etc., are often so serious an 
obstacle to the proper performance of the embalmer’s art that thev 
deserve something in the way of practical hints at this point. 

Dissecting Wounds. (See Poisons.) 

Of the Head, may be carefully washed and filled with plaster of 
Paris, in thin paste, which soon hardens and fills the cavity, when injec- 


GLOSSARY OF DISEASES. 


511 

tion can be resorted to as usual. This should be used warm if the body 
has previously become chilled. If head be entirely severed, inject sepa¬ 
rately and fasten to the trunk similarly treated. 

Of the Heart, very materially interferes with arterial injection, if 
on the left side. In such cases it is recommended to use the common 
carotid and cavity injection. 

Of the Limbs. A severed arm may be injected through its arteries 
and fastened to the body similarly prepared by injection through the 
carotid, the axillary of course being first ligated. A leg or foot crushed 
below the knee should have the ruptured arteries located and ligated by 
injection through the femoral. If necessary the mangled tissue may be 
removed and artificial members applied to the stumps. 

Of the Throat. If in these cases the internal jugulars or carotids 
have been severed they should be ligated. The injecting may then be 
inserted into the carotid and injection done in this way, plaster of Paris 
afterward being used to close the wound and its edges sewed together 
over this. 

Of the Trunk. The cavities should be freely opened, and by injec¬ 
tion of the femoral the severed arteries discovered and ligated, and the 
cavities filled with antiseptic cotton, and the incision sewed together. 

x. 

Xeroderma. (See Lexicon.) 

Y. 

Yellow Atrophy of the Liver, (See Acute Yellow Atrophy.) 

*Yellow Fever is undoubtedly due to the introduction into the 
system of some specific contagious poison whose exact nature is as yet 
unknown. It is a very fatal disease, the autopsy showing congestion of 
the brain, inflammation of the stomach, and the liver dry, pale, yellow, 
anaemic, although it is occasionally found engorged, as are also the 
kidneys. According to Hartshorne, the material cause of yellow fever 
is never generated or multiplied in the bodies of those having had the 
disease, which may be taken anywhere without fear of communicating it; 
but it may possibly be transmitted by clothing, bedding or merchandise, 
which can, however, be thoroughly disinfected by superheated steam. 


III. 


Table of Poisons with their Smallest Fatal Doses and a List 
of the Antidotes which have Been Used for each Most Suc¬ 
cessfully. 

A poison, according to Guy's definition is any substance — solid, 
liquid or gaseous — which when applied to the body outwardly, or in any 
way introduced into it, without acting mechanically but by its own in¬ 
herent qualities, can destroy life or injure health. 

Poisons are usually divided into three groups, viz.: Irritants, Nar¬ 
cotics and Narcotico-Irritants, but the division adopted here is that 
of Tardieu who divides poisons into eight groups, as follows: Corrosive, 
Choleriform, Irritant, Anaesthetic, Narcotic, Heart, Respiratory, and 
Cerebro-spinal poisons. Where it is necessary in the following list to 
economize space, poisons will be assigned to these various groups by the 
use simply of initial letters for this purpose. 

Irritant poisons give rise to pain in the stomach and bowels, sick¬ 
ness, and purging with tenesmus. The evacuations are often tinged 
with blood, the pulse is feeble and irregular, and the skin cold. Many 
of the substances of this class also corrode the tissues with which they 
come in contact, and hence they produce a severe burning sensation in 
the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach. The degree of chemical action 
produced will of course vary in proportion to the amount of water with 
which the noxious agent may be diluted. They cause death by induc¬ 
ing collapse, or convulsions; or by exciting severe inflammation ; or, 
after a variable interval, by leading to stricture of the oesophagus. The 
diseases which most resemble the action of the irritants, are malignant 
cholera, severe diarrhoea, colic, gastritis, enteritis, rupture of the stom¬ 
ach or intestines, and obstruction of the bowels. 

Narcotics act on the brain and spinal cord, inducing headache, 
drowsiness, giddiness, stupor, and insensibility. Frequently there are 
convulsions, and sometimes paralysis. There is very seldom vomiting or 
diarrhoea. The symptoms of apoplexy, epilepsy, and uraemia bear a re¬ 
semblance to those caused by this class. 

Narcotico-Irritants produce great thirst, pain in the throat and 
stomach, vomiting and purging, delirium with spectral illusions and 
rarely convulsions. Sometimes there is tetanus, sometimes coma or 
syncope. Diseases of the brain and spinal cord are often very insidious 

512 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


513 


in their progress, and hence may suddenly give rise to suspicious symp¬ 
toms. The history, mode of attack, etc., will generally negative any 
suspicion of poisoning. 

For a fuller description of the post-mortem appearance after death 
from special poisons see diseases and their pathological changes. 

A. 

Acetic Acid. Corrosive and irritant. Two cases with fatal results 
from injection into suppurating wounds. 

Antidotes: Magnesia, chalk or carbonate of soda. 

Acid Arsenic. Fatal dose two and one-half grains. I. & C. 

Antidotes: Hydrated peroxide of iron,' dialyzed iron and demulcent 
drinks. 

Acid Arsenious. (White Arsenic.) Choleriform Poison. Fatal 
dose two grains. 

Antidotes: Calcined magnesia, hydrated peroxide of iron, dialyzed 
iron and demulcent drinks. 

Carbonic Acid Gas. Narcotic poison when inhaled in sufficient 
quantity. 

Antidotes: Fresh air, stimulants, transfusion and artificial respira¬ 
tion. 

Citric Acid. No fatal cases recorded. Irritant. 

Antidotes: Magnesia, chalk, carbonate of soda or potassa. 

Hydrocyanic Acid. Fatal dose, one grain. Narcotic. 

Antidotes: Ammonia, chlorine in solution, carbonate of potassa in 
solution followed by sulphate of iron in solution. 

Muriatic Acic. Corrosive and irritant. Fatal dose, four drachms. 

Antidotes: Carbonate of soda, carbonate of lime or potassa, carbon¬ 
ate of magnesia. 

Nitric Acid. Corrosive and irritant. Fatal dose, two drachms. 

Antidotes: Carbonate of lime, magnesia, chalk, or carbonate of 
soda. 

Oxalic Acic. Narcotico-irritant. Fatal dose, one-half ounce. 

Antidotes: Carbonate of magnesia, lime, plaster from the ceiling, 

but not any of the other alkalies. 

Phosphoric Acid. Irritant poison. Fatal dose, see phosphorus. 

Antidotes: Ammonia, chlorinated water, magnesia, or even large 
draughts of water. 

Prussic Acid. See Hydrocyanic acid. 

guxpiiURic Acid-. Corrosive poison. Tatal dose, one drachm. 

Antidotes: Magnesia, or its carbonate, carbonate of lime, chalk, 

carbonate of soda, whiting, milk, or oil. 

Sulphurous Acid. Narcotico-irritant. Fatal by asphyxia. 

33 


514 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


Antidotes: Cautious inhalation of ammonia gas, tartaric acid, car¬ 
bonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, plaster from the ceiling. 

Acetate of Copper. Irritant. Fatal dose, one-half ounce. 

Antidotes : Albumen or white of eggs, iron and milk. 

Acetate of Lead. Irritant. Fatal only in large doses, when no 
vomiting takes place. 

Antidotes: Sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda, phosphate of 
soda, iodide of potassium albumen, milk. 

Acetate of Zinc . Irritant. 

Antidotes : Sulphate of zinc, carbonate of soda, tannic acid, albumen, 
milk. 

Acetate of Morphia. Narcotic poison. Fatal dose, half grain. 

Antidotes: Infusion of galls, tannic acid, green tea, coffee, stimu¬ 
lants, dash of cold water. 

Aconite. Aconitum Napellus. Fatal dose, four grains extract. 
N. P. 

Antidotes: Tannic acid, green tea, chlorine and iodine well diluted. 

Aconita. Aconitina. Fatal dose, one-tenth grain. N. P. 

Same antidotes as for aconite. 

Aethusia Cynapium. Common fool’s parsley. (N. I. P.) About 

six ounces fatal dose. 

i 

Antidotes: Emetics. 

Aether Sulphuricum. Sulphuris ether (A.) Fatal only bv inhal¬ 
ation. 

Antidotes: Ammonia by inhalation, fresh air, artificial respira¬ 
tion. 

Aesculus Ohioensis. Buckeye. (C—S. N.) Fatal dose, unknown. 

Antidotes : Ammonia, alcohol. 

Alcohol. Anaesthetic. Fatal dose, uncertain, usually from 
liquors. 

Antidotes: Acetate of ammonia, common table salt. 

Aluminate of Potassa. Alum. (I. P.) Fatal dose, two grains. 

Antidotes : Carbonate of soda or ammonia. 

Almonds, Bitter. Tetanic. Fatal dose, 15 minims oil. 

Antidotes: Inhalations of ammonia, chlorine, chloroform. 

Amanita-Muscaria. Truffles. See Muscarine. 

Ammonia. Irritant poison. Fatal dose, half ounce. 

Antidotes: Vinegar, lemon juice, demulcent drinks. 

Ammonia, Aqua. Hartshorn. Irritant poison. Fatal dose, half 
ounce. 

Antidotes : Vinegar, lemon juice and demulcents. 

Ammoniacal Vapor. Irritant poison. 

Antidotes: Vapor of vinegar, steam. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


515 


Ammonia Arseni as. Arseniate of ammonia. Fatal dose, three 
grains. 

Antidotes: Hydrated peroxide of iron, hydrated magnesia, oil mixed 
with lime water, milk, etc. 

Ammonia Arsenis. Arsenite of ammonia. (Ch. P.) 

Antidotes : See arseniate of ammonia. 

Ammonia Liquor. See ammonia, aqua. 

Ammonia Hydrochlorate. Muriate of ammonia. Fatal dose, 
half ounce. (I. P.) 

Antidotes : Fixed oils, vinegar and lemon juice. 

Ammonite Carbonas. Carbonate of ammonia. (I. P.) Fatal dose, 
half ounce. 

Antidotes: Fixed oils, vinegar and lemon juice. 

Amygdalis Communis. Bitter almond. Fatal dose, 15 grains 
oil. (C—S. P.) 

Antidotes: Ammonia, chlorine, tannic acid and charcoal. 

Amygdalia Persica. Peach leaves. Action like bitter almonds. 

Antidotes: Ammonia, chlorine, tannic acid and charcoal. 

Anagallis Aryensis. Meadow pimpernel. Fatal dose, unknown. 

Antidotes: Charcoal, tannic acid and green tea. 

Anemone Pulsatilla. Wind flower. (I. P.) Fatal dose, unknown. 

Antidotes: Charcoal, emetics. 

Animal Poisons. Balistes Monoceros, Old Wife. Cancer Astacus, 
Crawfish. Cancer Ruricolus, Land Crab. Clupea Thryssa, Yellow¬ 
billed Sprat. Coracinus Fuscus Major, Gray Snapper. Coracinus 
Minor, Ilyne. Coryphcena Splendens, Dolphin. Mormyra, Blue 
Parrot-fish. Muroena Major, Conger Eel. Mytilus Edulis, Mussel. 
Ostracion Globellum, Smooth Bottle-fish. Perea Major, Barracuda. 
Perea Venenosa, Grooper. Perea Venenata, Rock-fish. Physalia, 
Portuguese Man-of-War. Scomber Cceruleus, Spanish Mackerel. 
Scomber Maximus, King-fish. Scomber Thynnus. Bonnetta. Sparus 
Chrysops, Porgee. Tetrodon Sceleratus, Tunny. Tetrodon Ocellatus, 
Blower. 

An emetic should be speedily given o,f ground mustard or sulphate 
of zinc ; tickling the throat with the finger ; large draughts of warm 
water; after full vomiting, an active purgative should be given to re¬ 
move any of the noxious matter from the intestines. Vinegar and 
water may be drunk after the above remedies have operated ; and the 
body may be sponged with the same. Water made very sweet with 
sugar, to which ether may be added, may be drunk freely as a corrective, 
A solution of chlorate of potash, or of alkali, the latter weak, may be 
given to obviate the effects of the poison. If spasm ensue after evacu- 


510 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


ations, laudanum in considerable doses is necessary. If inflammation 
should occur, combat in the usual way. 

Antimonial Vapor. Choleriform j:>oison. Fatal dose uncertain. 

Antidotes : Vapor of vinegar and ammonia. 

Antimonii Chloridum. Chloride of antimony. Fatal dose, two 
ounces. (I P.) 

Antidotes: Tannic acid, green tea, astringent infusions and alkalies. 

Antimonii Oxidum. Oxide of antimony. Irritant poison. Fatal 
dose, uncertain. 

Antidotes: Tannic acid, green tea, astringent infusions and charcoal. 

Antimonii et Potass.e Tartras. Tartar emetic. Fatal dose, two 
grains. 

Antidotes : Tannic acid, astringent infusions, yellow bark and green 
tea. 

Antimonii: Vinum. Wine of antimony. Contains two grains of 
tartar emetic to the ounce. (I. P.) 

Antidotes : Astringent infusions and green tea. 

Apis Mellifica. Honey Bee. Local poisoning from sting. 

Antidotes: Solution of ammonia, or common salt, locally. 

Apocynum Androsaemifolium. Hog’s Bane. Heart poison. 
Fatal Hose, unknown. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Argenti Nitras. Nitrate of Silver. (I.) Fatal in small quantities. 

Antidotes: Common table salt, albumen. 

Aromatic Sulphuric Acid. Elixir Vitriol. (See Sulphuric Acid.) 

Antidotes: Magnesia, lime, chalk, soda. 

Arsenicum. Arsenic. (I. P.) Fatal dose 1 grain. 

Antidotes : Hydrated peroxide of iron, hydrated magnesia. 

Arsenias Ammoni.e. Arseniate of ammonia. (I. P.) Fatal dose, 
three grains. 

Antidotes : Hydrated peroxide of iron, hydrated magnesia. 

Arsenias Cupri. Arseniate of copper. (I. P.) Fatal dose two- 
thirds grain. 

Antidotes : Hydrated ferric oxide, hydrate of magnesia. 

Arsenias Potass.e. Arseniate of Potassa. (I. P.) Fatal dose 
three grains. 

Antidotes: Ferric hydrate, magnesia hydrate, dyalized iron. 

Arsenias Sod^e. Arseniate of Soda. (I. P.) Fatal dose three 
grains. 

Antidotes are the same as for arseniate of potassa. 

Arsenis Ammonite. Arsenite of Ammonia. (I. P.) Fatal dose, 
three grains. 

Antidotes are the same as for arseniate of potassa. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


517 


Arsenis Cupri. Arsenite of copper. (I. P.) Fatal close, three 
grains. 

Antidotes are the same as forarseniate of potassa. 

Arsenis Potass,®. Arsenite of Potassa. (I. P.) Fatal dose, 
three grains. 

Antidotes are the same as for the arseniate of potassa. 

Arsenici oxidum Album. White oxide of Arsenic. (C. P.) Fatal 
dose, two grains. 

A ntidotes are the same as for arseniate of potassa. 

Arsenici Oxidum Nigrum. Black oxide of arsenic. (See Arseni¬ 
cum .) 

Antidotes are the same as for arseniate of potassa. 

Arsenici Sulphuretum Flavum. Yellow Sulphide of Arsenic. 
(I. P.) Fatal dose, sixty grains. 

Antidotes are the same as for the arseniate of potassa. 

Arsenici Sulphuretum Rubrum. Red Sulphide of Arsenic. Fatal 
dose, same as yellow sulphide. 

Antidotes are the same as for the arseniate of potassa. 

Arum Maculatum. Wake Robin. (N. I. P.) Fatal dose, two 
drachms of juice. 

Antidote : Charcoal, melted butter. 

Atropa Belladonna. Deadly Night-shade. (N. P.) Fatal 

dose, one drachm extract. 

Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine, stimulants, lime water and 
vinegar. 

Atropia. Alkaloid of above. (N. P.) Fatal dose, two grains. 

Antidotes same as above. 

Auri et Sodii Chloridum. Chloride of Gold and Sodium. Fatal 
dose, six grains. 

Antidotes: Ferrous sulphate and mucilage. 

B. 


Barii Chloridum. Chloride of Barium. (I. P.) Fatal dose, 
three drachms. 

Antidotes : Sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda. 

Baryta. Barytes. (I. P.) Fatal dose, one drachm. 

Antidotes: Sulphuric acid (dilute), sulphate of magnesia, sulphate 
of soda. 

Baryt^e Carbonas. Carbonate of Baryta. (I. P.) Fatal dose, one 
drachm. 

Antidotes same as above. 

Baryta Murias. Muriate of Barytes. Same as Barii chloridum. 


518 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


Antidotes: Sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, dilute sulphuric 
acid. 

Baryta Nitras. Nitrate of baryta. Action same as other salts of 
baryta. 

Belladonna Atropa. Deadly Nightshade. (N. P.) Fatal dose 
one drachm extract. 

Antidotes: Bromine, chloride, iodine. Emetic of sulphate of zinc. 
Bichromate of Potash. Irritant poison. Fatal dose 10 grains. 
Antidotes: Carbonate of potassa, carbonate of soda, emetics. 

c. 

Calomel. Irritant. Fatal dose 20 grains. 

Antidotes: Gluten, iodine, white of egg. 

Caltha Palustris. Marsh Marigold. Chloroform. 

Antidotes : Emetics and charcoal. 

Calx. Quicklime. Corrosive. Fatal dose indefinite. 

Antidotes: Mineral soda water, effervescing draught 
C amphora . Camphor. (C—S. P.) Fatal dose, one ounce. 
Antidotes: Emetics, chloral. 

Cantharis Vesicatoria. Spanish Fly. (I. P.) Fatal dose, 24 
grains. 

Antidotes: Whisky, ammonia. 

Carbonic Acid Gas. See Acidum Carbonicum. Inhalation fatal. 
Antidotes: Fresh air, oxygen, transfusion. 

Carburetted Hydrogen Gas. Narcotic. Inhalation fatal. 
Antidotes : Chlorine gas inhaled cautiously. 

Chenopodium Murale. Wormseed. Narcotico-irritant. 

Antidotes: Emetics. 

Cheese. (Spoiled.) See Tyrotoxicon. Fatal dose, unknown. 
Antidotes : Charcoal and emetics. 

Chlorine. Irritant. By inhalation. 

Antidotes: Ammonia, ether by inhalation. 

Chloroiiydric Acid. Muriatic Acid. Fatal dose, one drachm. (I. P.) 
Antidotes: Ammonia, weak alkalies 
Chloroform. Anaesthetic. Fatal by inhalation. 

Antidotes: Ammonia by inhalation. Galvanic Shocks, artificial 
respiration. 

Cicuta \ r EROSA. Water Hemlock. Fatal dose, \ root. (C—S. P.) 
Antidotes: Emetics, chlorals. 

Cinnabar Vermilion. Persulphuret of Mercury. Irritant Poison 
Antidotes: Charcoal, albumen, gluten, mucilage. 

Coculus indices. Fish-berries. See Picrotoxin. 

Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


519 


Colchicum Autumnale. Meadow Saffron. See colchina. (Ch. P.) 
Colciiina Active principal of Colchium. Fatal dose, \ grain. 
Codeia. See opium. 

Antidotes: Infusion of galls, coffee, tannic acid. 

Colube a Berus. Black Viper. See appendix to jooisons. 
Antidotes: Alcohol, ammonia, asclepius verticulata, Anemone, 
cylindea. 

Conium Maculatum. Hemlock. Fatal dose, 10 drahms of extract. 
Narcotic. 

A ntidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine, tannic acid. 

Coniine, Conii. Conine. alkaloid of connium mac. One drop very 
dangerous. 

Antidotes: Galls, vinegar. 

Convolvulus Jalapa. Jalap. Irritant. Fatal dose, 8 drachms. 
Antidotes : Bromine, chlorine, iodine. 

Convolvulus Scammonii. Scammony. 

Antidotes: 

Corrosive Sublimate. (Ch. P.) See Ilyd. chlorisdumcorrosivum. 
Antidotes: Albumen, gluten, gold-dust, iron-filings. 

Crabs. Irritant. See appendix to poisons. 

Antidotes: Milk, mucilage. 

Creosotum-. Creasote. Fatal dose, 3 drachms. Narcotic irritant. 
Antidotes: Albumen, sugar, iron, milk. 

Crotalus Horridus. RattleSnake. See appendix to poisons. 
Antidotes: Alcohol, chichona, ammonia, scuttilaria and asclepias 
verticulata (?) 

Croton Tiglium. Croton oil. (I. P.) Fatal dose, £ drachm. 
Antidotes: Demulcents and opiates. 

Cucumis Colocynthus. Colocynth. (I. P.) See Colocynthine. 

Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine. 

Curare. Arrow poison. (A.) Fatal in smallest quantities. 
Antidotes: Common salt, sugar, nux vomica. 

Cupri Acetas. Acetate of copper. (I. R.) Fatal dose, one 
ounce. 

Antidotes: Albumen, sugar, iron, milk. 

Cupri Ammoniatum. Ammoniated Copper. (I. R.) Fatal dose, 
one ounce. 

Antidotes : Iron, albumen and milk. 

Cupri Arsenis. Arsenite of copper. Paris green. See Arsenates. 
Antidotes: Ferric hydrate, dialyzed iron. 

Cupri Carbonas. Carbonate of Copper. (I. P.) Fatal dose, one 
ounce. 

Antidotes: Albumen, iron filings. 


520 


TABLE OF POISOKS. 


Cupni Oxidum. Oxide of copper. (I. P.) Fatal dose, one ounce. 

Antidotes: Albumen, iron filings. 

Cupri Subacetas. Acetate of copper, verdigris. (I. P.) Fatal 
dose, one ounce. 

Antidotes: Albumen, ferrocyanide of potassa, milk. 

Cupri Sulphas. Sulphate of Copper. (I. P.) Fatal dose, one 
ounce. 

Antidotes : Albumen, iron filings, ferrocyanide of potassa. 

Cyanide of Potassium. Cyanide of Potassa. (I. P.) Fatal dose, 
three grains 

Antidotes: Sulphate of iron in solution. 

Cytisus Labunum. Laburnum. (N. P.) 20-60 grs of the bark. 

Antidotes: Chlorine, bromine, iodine. 

D. 

Daphne Mezereum. Mezereon. Berries poisonous. Fatal dose, 
uncertain. 

A ntidote: Charcoal. 

Daturia Stramonium. Thorn apple. (N. P.) Fatal dose, un¬ 
certain . 

Antidote: Bromine, chlorine, iodine, vinegar, lime juice. 

Delphinium Stapiiisagria. Stavesacre. (B. P.). Fatal dose, one 
ounce. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Digitalis Purpurea. Foxglove. (H. P.) Fatal dose, twenty 
grains. 

Antidote: Infusion of yellow bark, stimulants, galls tannic acid, 
green tea, emetics. 

Digitaline. Alkaloid of above. Heart poison. Fatal dose, % 
grain. 

Antidote: Same as above. 

E. 

Eels. See Animal Poisons. I. P. 

Antidotes: Charcoal, emetics, etc., 

Elaterium Momordica. Squirting cucumber. (Ch. P.) Fatal 
dose, few grains. 

Antidotes: Bromine chlorine, iodine. 

F. 

Ferri Chloridum. Chloride of Iron. (I. P.) Fatal only in large 
doses. 

Antidotes: Carbonate of soda, magnesia, mucilage. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


521 


Ferri Sesqui-Chloridum. Muriated Tincture of Iron. Same as 
above. 

Antidote: Carbonate of soda. 

Ferri Sulphas. Sulphate of Iron. (I. P.) Fatal only in large 
• doses. 

Antidotes: Carbonate of soda, magnesia, mucilage. 

Fusel Oil. Heart Poison. Few drops fatal to lower animals. 

Antidote: Emetic. 

Fungi. See Mushrooms. 

Antidotes: Tannin and salt. 

Gr. 

Gaultheria Procumbens, Oil of. Oil of Wintergreen. Heart 
poison. Fatal dose, one ounce. 

Antidote: 

Gelsemium Semperyirens. Yellow Jessamine. (I. P.) Fatal 
dose, three teaspoonfuls of extract. 

Antidotes: Ammonia, charcoal. 

H. 

Heleborus Album. White Hellebore. Fatal dose, one-half drachm 
extract. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Hornet Sting. Local inflammation. 

Antidotes: Ammonia or dilute carbonic acid. 

II ydrochloric Acid. Muriatic Acid. (C. P.) Fatal dose, one 
drachm. 

Antidotes: Ammonia and dilute alkalies. 

Hyoscyamus Niger. Black Henbane. (N. P.) Seed and root 
poison. 

Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine, vinegar and ammonia. 

Hyosgyamia. xllkaloid of Above. (N. P.) Fatal dose, one grain. 

Antidotes: Same above. 

Hydrargyrum. Mercury. Irritant poison. Fatal only in large 
doses. 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten, iodine. 

Hydragyri Chloridum Corosivum. Corrosive Sublimate. (Ch. 
P.) Fatal dose, three grains. 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten, iodine. 

Hydrargyri Cyanuretum. Cyanuret of Mercury. (C—S. P.) 

Fatal dose, ten grains. 

Antidotes. Albumen, gluten. 


522 


TABLE OE POISONS. 


Hydrargyri Nitras. titrate of Mercury. (I. P.) Fatal (lose, 
one-half ounce. 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten. 

Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubum. Red Precipitate. (T. P.) Fatal 
in large doses. 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten. 

Hydrargyri Sulphas Flavum. Yellow Sulphate of Mercury. 
(I. P.) Fatal dose, uncertain. 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten. 

Hydrargyrum Ammonatum. Ammoniated Mercury. (I. P.) 
Fatal in large doses. 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten. 

Hydrocyanic Acid. Prussic Acid (C. S. P.) Fatal dose, one 
grain. 

Antidotes: Dilute chlorine gas, ammonia. 

I. 

Iodine. (Irritant Poison.) Fatal dose, three grains. 

Antidotes: Gluten, wheat flour, starch. 

Iodide of Potassium. (Irritant.) Fatal dose, ten grains (??.) 
Antidotes: Gluten, wheat flour, starch. 

Ipecacuanha. (Irritant Poison.) Dangerous in large doses. 
Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine. 

Iron and its Salts. (Irritant Poison.) Fatal only in large doses. 
Antidotes: Carbonate of soda, carbonate of magnesia. 

J. 

Jatropha Curcas. Indian nut. (N. P.) Fatal even when locally 
applied. 

Antidotes: Charcoal and stimulants. 

Jatropa Maniiiot. Cassada. (N. P.) Fatal dose, thirty grains. 
Antidote: Charcoal. 

Jiniperis Sabina Oleum. Oil of Savin. (C. S. P.) Fatal dose, 
one ounce. 

Antidotes: None reliable. 



Kalmia Laterifolia. Mountain Laurel. (N. I.) Dose, uncertain. 
Antidotes: Emetics and stimulants. 

L. 

Lactis. Milk, spoiled. (See Tyrotoxicon.) 

Laurus Camphora. Camphor. (C. S. P.) Fatal in large doses, 
one ounce. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


523 


Antidotes: Chlorine and stimulants. 

Laurel Mountain. Calico bush. (See Kalinia Laterifolia.) 
Laurel Water. (C. S. Poison.) Fatal dose, one ounce. 

Antidotes: Inhalations of ammonia, chloroform. 

Lobelia Inflata. Indian Tobacco. Fatal dose, one drachm. (ILP.) 
Antidotes: Stimulants. 

Lytta Vesicatoria. Spanish Fly. Fatal dose, t#o grains. (Irri¬ 
tant Poison.) 

Antidotes: Emetics, opium. 

Lead and its Salts. Fatal in large doses. (See salts.) 

Antidotes: Dilute sulphuric acid, iodide of potassium, sulphate of 
soda, sulphate of magnesia. 

M. 

Mackeral. (Spoiled). (See Propylamine.) (II. and I. P.) 
Antidotes: Charcoal. 

Milk. (Spoiled.) (See Tyrotoxicon.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal. 

Mercury^ and its Salts. Fatal in large doses. (I. P.) 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten, iodine, charcoal, sulphate of soda. 
Morphia and its Salts. Fatal dose, one grain. Narcotic poison. 
Antidotes: Astringents, charcoal, coffee, ammonia. 

Momordica Elaterium. Squirting Cucumber. (N. I. P.) Fatal 
dose, a few grains. 

Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine. 

Mormyra. Blue Parot Fish. (See animal poisons.) (I. P.) 
Antidotes: Charcoal, emetics. 

Muscarine. Poisonous alkaloid of mushrooms. (C. S. P.) 
Mushrooms. (See Muscarine.) Fatal dose, uncertain. 

Antidotes: Charcoal, salt and emetics. 

Muraena Major. Conger Eel. (I. P.) (See animal poisons.) 
Antidotes: Charcoal. 

Muriatic Acid Gas. (Irritant Poison.) Inhalation dangerous. 
Antidotes: Inhalation of ammonia cautiously. 

Mytilus Edulis. Mussel. (D. P.) (See animal poison.) 

A ntidotes: Charcoal. 

Narcissis Pseudo-Narcissus. Daffodil. Fatal only to lower ani¬ 
mals. 

Antidotes: Charcoal. 

N. 

Narcotina. Alkaloid of Opium. (N. P.) Fatal dose, uncertain. 
Antidotes: Astringents, coffee, ammonia. 


524 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


Nerium Oleander. Common Oleander. 

Antidotes: Charcoal. 

Nitric Oxide. (Irritant Poison.) Fatal only by inhalation. 
Antidotes : Fresh air and transfusion. 

Nicotina Tabacum. Tobacco. (H. P.) Fatal dose, uncertain. 
Antidotes: Camphor stimulants. 

Nitrous A cm) (Irritant Poison.) Fatal dose, two drachms. 
Antidotes: Ammonia and diluted alkalies. 

o. 

Oenanthe Crocata. Hemlock Dropwort. Leaves and roots very 
poisonous. 

Antidotes : Infusion of galls, emetics, castor oil. 

Oestrus Bovis. Gad Fly. Local irritant only. 

Antidotes: Solution of ammonia, or dilute carbolic acid locally. 
Oleum Corni Cervi Empyreumaticum. Oil of Hartshorn. Dip- 
pePs animal oil. (Irritant Poison.) Fatal dose, teaspoonful. 

Antidotes: Fixed oils, vinegar, lemon juice. 

Oleum Picis Liquid a. Oil of Tar. See Creasote. 

Oleum Terebinthina. Oil of Turpentine. (N. A. P.) Fatal dose, 
several ounces. 

Antidotes: Ammonia stimulants. 

Opium. Crude Opium. (N. P.) Fatal dose, four grains. 

Antidotes : Infusion of galls, astringents, coffee, magnesia, chlorine, 
charcoal, iodine, bromine. 

Osmium. Very poisonous in small doses to lower animals, especially 
in the form of vapor. 

Oxalic Acid. Acid of Wood Sorrel. (N. I. P.) Fatal dose, one- 
half ounce. 

Antidotes: Chalk, lime, plaster from the ceiling. 

Ostracion Globellum. Smooth Bottle Fish. See animal poi¬ 
sons. 

Antidotes: Charcoal and emetics. 

Oysters. (I. P.) (See animal poisons.) 

Antidotes: Milk, mucilage, ether. 

OuRARA. Indian War Poison. (C. S. P.) Fatal in the smallest 
quantities. 

Antidotes: Iodine, iodide of potassium. 

P. 

Pa payer Somniferum. Popy. (N. P.) (See Opium for fatal dose.) 
Antidotes: Infusion of galls astringents, coffee, albumen, charcoal. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


r.0--r 

O fyjO 


Parsnip, Wild. (C. S. P.) Fatal dose, one ounce root. 

Antidotes: Charcoal and emetics. 

Perca Major. Barracuda. (See animal poisons.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal and emetics. 

Perca Venenata. Rock-fish. (See animal poisons.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal, ammonia. 

Phosphorous. (Irritant Poisons.) Fatal dose, one and one-half 
grains. 

A niidotes : Magnesia, mucilage, lac magnesia. 

Piiysalia. Portugese Man-of-War. Local irritant and poison. 

A ntidote: Charcoal. 

Piiytollacca Decandra. Poke. (N. I. P.) Fatal doses, un¬ 
certain . 

A n tidote: Charcoal. 

Picrotoxin. (C. S. P.) Fatal dose, two scruples. 

Antidotes: Bromide, chlorine, iodine, charcoal. 

Piscidia Erytiirinia. Jamaica Dogwood. (Narcotic.) Fatal dose, 
uncertain. 

Antidotes: Same as for opium. 

Plumbi Acetas. Acetate of Lead, Sugar of Lead. (I. P.) Fatal 
in large doses. 

A ntidotes: Sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda, phosphate of soda. 
Plumbum. Metallic Lead. Fatal only as a cumulative poison. 
(C. S. P.) 

Antidotes: Iodine, dilute sulphuric acid, sulphate of soda, sulphate 
of magnesia, albumen, casein, milk. 

Plumbi Carbonas. Carbonate of Lead. (I. P.) Fatal in large 
quantities only. 

Antidotes: Dilute sulphuric acid, iodine. 

Plumbi Chloridum. Chloride of Lead (I. P.) Fatal in large 
quantities. 

Antidotes: Sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda. 

Plumbi Oxidumrubrum. Red Oxide of Lead. Fatal in large 
quantities. (I. P.) 

Antidotes : Iodine, sulphate of soda. 

Plumbi Oxidum Semivitreum. Semi vitrified Oxide of Lead. 

(Irritant Poison.) Fatal in large quantities. 

Antidotes : Iodine, sulphate of soda. 

Poppy. (Narcotic Poison in large quantities) (See Opium.) 
Antidotes: Infusion of galls, tannic acid, charcoal, ammonia, green 

tea. 

Potass a. Caustic Potassa, Potash. Fatal dose one-half ounce, 
(Corrosive Poison.) 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


Antidotes: Fixed oils, vinegar, lemon juice. 

PotasStE Arsenias. Arseniate of Potassa. (Oh. P-) Fatal dose, 
three grains. 

Antidotes: Hydrated peroxide of iron, dialyzed iron, etc. 

Potass^ Arsenis. Arsenite of Potassa. (Ch. P.) Fatal dose, 
three grains. 

Antidotes : Hydrated peroxide of iron. 

Potassa Bichromas. Bichromate of Potassa. (I. P.) Fatal 
dose, one drachm. 

Antidotes : Carbonate of potassa, carbonate of soda, emetics. 

Potasses Carbonas. Carbonate of Potassa, Pearlash. (I. P.) 
Fatal dose, one-half ounce. 

Antidotes: Lemon juice, vinegar. 

PotassvE Nitras. Nitre. (I. P.) Fatal dose, one ounce. 

Potassae Sulphas. (I. P.) Fatal dose, two drachms. 

Antidotes: Demulcents and opiates. 

Pottasii Cyanidum. Cyanide of Potassium. (C—I. S. P.) Fatal 
dose, three grains. 

Antidotes: Ferrous sulphate in solution. 

Propylamine. Poisonous Alkaloid of decayed fish. (C—S. P.) 

Antidotes: Stimulants and emetics. 

Prunes Laurocerasus. Cherry Laurel. (C. S. P.) Fatal dose, 
one ounce water. 

Antidotes: Dashes of cold water, ammonia inhaled, chlorine, chloro¬ 
form inhaled. 

Prunus Padus. Cluster Cherry. (C. S. P.) Fatal dose, one 
ounce water. 

Antidotes: Same as above. 

Prussic Acid. Fatal dose one grain. 

Antidotes: Dashes of cold water, ammonia inhaled, chlorine in¬ 
haled. 

Putrid Animal Matter. May produce symptoms of irritant 
poisoning, especially when taken in the form of spoiled sausages, bacon, 
ham, cheese, and goose grease. (See Tyrotoxicon and wounds (dissect¬ 
ing) in following section.) 

Antidotes: Ammonia, tonics and emetics. 

R. 

Rabies Canina. Hydrophobia. Fatal only by inoculation. 

Antidotes: Nitrate of silver, ammonia, scutillaria, laterifolia. (?) 

Ranunculus Acris. Crowfoot. Irritant poison. Fatal dose, 
uncertain. 

A n t ido tes : C h arc oal. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


527 


Red Precipitate. Reel Oxide of Mercury. Irritant poison, but 
rarely fatal. 

Antidotes: Albumen, gluten. 

Rhus I oxicodrendron. Poison Oak or Sumac. Local poison 
also. 

Antidotes: Charcoal internally; emollients externally. 

Ricinus Communis. Castor Oil Plant. Seeds poisonous; fatal in 
large quantities. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Robinia Pseudo-acacia. Locust Tree. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Ruta Graveolens. Rue. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

s 

Saliva Rabies Canine. Mad-dog Saliva. (See Rabies.) (C. S. P.) 

Antidotes: Nitrate of silver, ammonia, scutillaria laterifolia. 

Sambucus Ebulus. Elder. Fatal dose, two tablespoonfuls pow¬ 
der (I. P.). 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Sanguinaria Canadensis. Bloodroot. (I. & H. P.) Fatal dose, 
uncertain. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Sausage Poison. (See Putrid Animal Matter.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal and emetics. 

Scombex Scceruleus. Spanish mackerel. (See animal poison.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal and emetics. - 

Scorpio. Scorpion's sting. Fatal by inoculation only. (See Ser¬ 
pent's Venom.) 

Antidotes: Whisky, ammonia, cinchonia. 

Scytale Piscivorus. Water Viper. (See Serpent's Venom.) 

Antidotes: Whisky, ammonia, cinchonia. 

Scilla Marattma. Squill, Sea Onion. (I. P.) 

Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine. 

Secale Cornutum. Ergot, Spurred Rye. (I. & II. P.) Fatal only 
in large doses. 

Antidote: Camphor. 

Serpents, Venom of. Boa Crotaloides; Copperhead. Cenchus 
MocJceson; Mockeson. Cerastes Nasicorms; Horned Viper. Coluber 
Berus; Viper. Coluber Prester; Black Viper. Crotalus (five species); 
Rattlesnake. Scytale Piscivorus; Water Viper. 

Antidotes: Asclepias, verticillata, anemone cylindrica, alcohol. 

Treatment: A cupping-glass to be applied over the wound, or a mod- 


528 


TABLE OF POISON'S. 


erately tight ligature above the bites,, and the wound left to bleed, after 
being well washed in warm water. The actual cautery, lunar caustic, 
to be then applied to it; afterward covered with lint dipped in equal 
parts of olive oil and spirits of hartshorn. If the inflammation be con¬ 
siderable, remove the ligature. Warm, diluting drinks, and small doses 
of ammonia to cause perspiration; the patient to be well covered in bed, 
and a little warm wine given occasionally. If gangrene be threatened, 
wine may be given more freely; bark also should be given. Arsenic, 
the principal ingredient in the Tanjore pill, lias been strongly recom¬ 
mended. Hyperdermic injection of aqua ammonia. 

Silver. Nitrate of. Lunar caustic. (C—S. P.) Fatal in small 
quantities. 

Antidotes: Common table salt, albumen. 

Snake's Bite. (See Serpents, Venom of.) 

Antidotes: Whisky, ammonia, chinchona, Scutellaria, asclepias verti- 
cillata, anemone cylindrica. 

SoDiE Carbon as. Carbonate of Soda. An irritant poison rarely 
fatal. 

Antidotes: Lemon juice, vinegar. 

Solanum Dulcamara. Bitter Sweet. Berries poisonous; some¬ 
times fatal. 

Antidotes: Charcoal and cardiac stimulants. 

Sorbus Acicuparia. Mountain Ash. Flowers, bark and especial¬ 
ly the root are irritant poisons. 

Antidote: Charcoal. 

Spares Chrysops. Spurge. 

A ntidote: Charcoal. 

Spigelia Marilandica. Pink Root. Fatal dose, three drachms. 

a. p.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal and opiates. 

Stalagmitis Gambogioides. G-amboge. Fatal dose, one drachm. 

(I. P.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal and opiates. 

Stannum. Tin. Powdered tin an irritant poison. Fatal dose, 
not known. 

Antidotes: Albumen, milk, flour. 

Stanni Chloridum. Chloride of Tin. Fatal dose, one-lialf drachm. 
(I.P.) 

Antidotes: Albumen, milk, flour. 

Strychnos Ignatio. St. Ignatius' Bean. Fatal dose, same as 
below. (C. S. P.) 

Antidotes: Bromine, chlorine, iodine, prussic acid, prussiate of 
potassa, chloroform. 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


529 


' Strychnos Nux Vomica . Nux Vomica. (C—S. P.) Fatal dose, 
thirty grains, powder. 

Antidotes: Same as above. 

Strychnia. Alkaloid of above. Fatal dose, one-fourth grain. 
(0. S. P.) 

Antidotes: Same as above. 

Sulphate of Indigo. Fatal dose, one drachm. (Corros. poison.) 

Antidotes: Magnesia, lime, milk. 

Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas. Inhalation poisonous. (A. P.) 

Antidote: Chlorine inhaled cautiously. 

Sulphurous Acid Gas. Poisonous only by inhalation. (Anaesthetic.) 

Antidote: Ammonia inhaled cautiously. 

T 

Tanecetum Vulgare Oleum. Oil of Tansy. Fatal in one-half 
ounce doses. (C. S. P.) 

Antidote: Charcoal. Chloroform by inhalation. 

Tarantula. (See Venom of Serpents.) 

Antidote: Ammonia: whiskey. 

' «/ 

Taxus Baccata. Yew. Berries poisonous, generally fatal. (I. P.) 

Antidotes: Charcoal, emetics. 

Tetrons celeratus. Tunny. (See animal poisons.) 

Antidote: Charcoal, emetics. 

Tin, Muriate of. Fatal dose, one drachm. (I. P.) 

Antidotes: (See Stanni Chloridum.) 

Ticunas. Indian War Poison. Fatal in smallest quantities. 

Antidotes. Iodine; Iodide of Potassa. 

Turpeth Mineral. Yellow Sulphate of Mercury. Fatal dose, one 
ounce. (I. P.) 

Antidotes: Mucilage, albumen. 

Tyrotoxicon. (I. P.) Ptomain discovered by Vaughan in decom¬ 
posing milk, ice cream, etc. 

Antidotes: Emetics and stimulants. 

Y 

Venomous Insects. Tarantula, Scorpio: Scorpion. Vespa Crabro: 
Hornet. Vespa Vulgaris: Wasp. Apis Mellifica: Bee. Culex Pipiens: 
Gnat. CEstrus Boris: Gadfly. Hartshorn and oil may be rubbed on the 
affected part, and a piece of rag, moistened in the same, or in salt and 
water, may be kept upon it, till the pain is removed. A few drops of 
hartshorn may be given frequently in a little water; and a glass or two 
of wine may be taken. The sting may in general be removed by making 
strong pressure around it with the barrel of a small watch key. 

34 


530 


TABLE OF POISONS. 


Yeratrum Album. White Hellebore. Fatal close, one drachm ex¬ 
tract. (H. P.) 

Antidotes : Cardiac stimulants. 

Yeratrum Yiride. American Hellebore. Fatal dose, one drachm. 

(H. P.) 

Antidotes: Same as above. 

Veratria. (H. P.) Active principle of hellebore, and poisonous like 
it though in much smaller quantities. 

Antidotes: As above. 

W 

White Precipitate. Ammoniatecl Mercury Chloride. Fatal in 
large doses. (I. P.) 

Antidotes: Mucilage, fixed oils. 

Woorara. Guiana arrow poison. Fatal in smallest quantities. 
(C. S. P.) 

Antidotes: Iodine, Iodide of Potassium. 

Y 

Yew. (I. P.) Berries poisonous, often fatal. 

Antidotes : Charcoal and emetics. 

z 

Zea Mays. Indian corn smut. (H. P.) Like ergot and in similar 

doses. 

Antidotes: Stimulants and camphor. 

Zinci Sulphas. Sulphate of Zinc. Fatal close, one drachm. (I. P.) 
Antidotes: Albumen, carbonate of soda, tannic acid, astringent. 


POISON BY INOCULATION. 


The subject of poisons would scarcely be complete without somewhat 
further mention of septic infection, perhaps the greatest danger incident 
to the embalmer’s art. It has long been known that the introduction of 
certain kinds of decaying animal matter into the system through a 
scratch or cut is often attended with the gravest consequences. In a 
few hours after such an accident the wound becomes red and painful and 
contiguous parts swollen. There is often at the same time sufficient 
constitutional disturbance to produce a chill followed by fever, which 
latter persists so long as there is extension of the swelling, and pain due 
to an extension of the local poisoning. We have, as says another, in ad¬ 
dition to the high fever with its intermissions, disordered digestive func¬ 
tions, great prostration, and, after death, a fluid state of the blood which 
abounds in bacteria, more or less extensive blood-extravasations in in¬ 
ternal organs, and frequently in the more tardy cases, phlegmonous 
nodules or abscesses. 

But in a second victim of the same poison there may be little or no 
constitutional disturbance ; only a diffuse red erythematous or erysipela¬ 
tous swelling around the wound, or, at worst, an abscess in the vicinity 
of the sore or in the nearest connecting lymphatic glands. In this case 
the blood (usually) contains no bacteria, but they abound in the local 
inflammatory products or in the pus of the abscess. 

Or in other words we have in the first case bacterial poisoning, and 
in the second pyaemia. It is the first that is the cause of death in 
cases of fatal dissection wounds and its possibility should always be kept 
in mind in handling the dead with cracked or wounded hands. Not all 
bodies are dangerous thus to handle, for these dangerous bacterial forms 
are not produced in all, but only under favorable circumstances. The 
modern intelligent use of antiseptics has greatly diminished this source 
of danger, but Le Boffis axiom should always be kept in mind in such 
cases, viz.: 

“ Tibere is no parallelism between the toxic properties of a putrefying 
liquid and its emanations ” in fact they seem to stand in inverse ratio viz .: 
the newer the putrefaction, the more toxic its properties, the older the 
liquids the more toxic its exhalations, as proven by frogs, thriving 
in a putrid bacterial fluid, which was rapidly fatal when injected, 

531 



532 


POISON BY INOCULATION. 


are killed by vapors of same fluids two months later although it 
was then harmless when injected. So that the putridity of a fluid bears 
no relation to the danger of its inoculation: therefore the early handling 
of a corpse is often more dangerous than when it has become rotten with 
putridity. This is easily explainable by what has already been said on 
the subject of bacteria (Section IV.) whose rapid multiplication 
within the body probably cause the toxic symptoms in these and similar 
cases of zymotic disease. 

The symptoms of slow blood poisoning thus produced are well described 
by a recent writer as follows : “ Dull headache and aching pain originat¬ 
ing at the points of infection, restless, unrefreshing sleep and wandering 
pains in the limbs. There is also loss of appetite and a bad taste in the 
mouth, with irregular chills and foul urine and discharges from the 
bowels. If not relieved, after a longer or shorter time violent chills set 
in, followed by a moderate or an intense fever heat. This heat has the 
peculiarity of imparting to the hand’a stinging, biting sensation. Gen¬ 
erally the septic symptoms only, make their appearance after the patient 
has become debilitated to such an extent that he faints away when the 
least attempt is made to raise them or to change the position. The 
breath and the bodily exhalations and spread of putrid odor increase, so 
that when the patient raises the bed clothing by his motion, a sickening 
stench affects the nostrils. The stools and the urine have also a cadaver¬ 
ic smell and there is escape of the blood by readily-bleeding gums, in con¬ 
sequence of which the mouth, the tongue, the teeth and the lips acquire 
a black-brown appearance. There is frequent nose bleed, vomiting of 
blood, bloody and foul-smelling, diarrhceic stools, hemorrhages from the 
vagina or the uterus. Bed sores break out and generally become gangren¬ 
ous. If the disease reaches the highest degree of intensity, a continued 
sleep sets in, with trembling of extremities, twitching of the muscles, 
grasping at flocks, involuntary evacuations, cold perspirations, and faint, 
ing fits. Then the patient dies from exhaustion.” 

Treatment consists in prompt cauterization of the wound with 
nitrate of silver, nitric acid or saturated solution of chloride of ammonia 
in all suspected cases. If pain and inflammation set in, a poultice should 
be applied and full doses of quinine taken, until a competent physician 
can be called, to whom the case should be committed. 


SECTION VIII 


ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, 
DISINFECTANTS. SPORICIDES AND DEODORIZERS. 









SECTION VIII. 


Disinfectants, Antiseptics and Sporicides. 

A disinfectant is a substance used to counteract the products of putre¬ 
faction and decomposition. 

An antiseptic is a substance used to prevent putrefaction and decom¬ 
position. 

A deodorizer is an agent that either absorbs, or destroys the offensive 
gases after they are formed, but does not prevent their formation ; in 
other words, does not prevent putrefaction. 

Sporicides .— Most of the antiseptics act by paralyzing the evolution 
of the microbic germs, and by destroying the adult bacteria, but have 
no effect on the germs of the bacteria. Certain substances, however, 
have by their chemical action the power of completely destroying the 
germs of the bacteria, and to this class Dr. Miguel has applied the term 
‘‘ sporicides.” The principal among them are the preparations of mer¬ 
cury, and the salts of silver, which in a solution of destroy in a few 
days the germs of microbes as surely as a dry temperature of 150° C. 
(302° F.) prolonged during several hours. Iodine, chlorine and bromine, 
and the mineral acids come next, but the microbicide par excellence is 
heat, which, raised to 110° C. (230° F.) for liquids, and to above 150° 
C. (302° F.) for solids has been found sufficiently effectual to destroy the 
germs of the microbes. 

There is very little uniformity in the use of these words, which are, 
unfortunately, used indiscriminately even by scientific writers. In popu¬ 
lar use any agent which destroys or covers a bad odor is called both 
antiseptic and disinfectant, although it may act merely as a deodorizer 
without any effect upon decomposition or putrefaction, or the develop¬ 
ment of bacterial germs (See Section IV.). As a matter of fact recent 
researches have proven that many of these deodorizers are valueless as 
sporicides, though excellent to destroy foul odors, as, for instance, 
ferrous sulphate. So wide is this misuse of so-called disinfecting agents 
that Duggan, in a recent article on this subject, says: “I am satisfied 
that three-quarters of all disinfectants sold to individuals are * * * 

substitutes for cleanliness. Under this class of ‘substitutes for cleanli¬ 
ness 9 may be included the various water-closet disinfecting machines. 
Aside from being totally inefficient, so far as destroying organisms is 
concerned, the fact that they are necessary to prevent odors is the best 

535 



530 ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 

evidence that the closet or water-supply is not what it should be. If we 
take away the odor simply, in such cases, there is nothing left to remind 
us of impending danger.” 

There is no parallelism, says Le Bon, between the power of an anti¬ 
septic to prevent putrefaction and to check it when once set in ; e. g., 
alcohol and carbolic acid are powerful preventives, but act feebly when 
putrefaction has commenced. 

With perhaps the exception of corrosive sublimate and a few other 
powerful poisons, the greater part of the antiseptics now in use have but 
a very feeble action on bacteria. Miguel has lately published a memoir 
describing the results of his experiments upon bacterial organisms. Bac¬ 
terial germs and adult bacteria were added to broth, and by noting the 
quantities of antiseptic substances which served to prevent the putrefac¬ 
tion of a liter of broth, a general classification of antiseptics was made as 
follows : 

1st Class. “Generally antiseptic ” bodies, of which from .01 to .10 
grammes (.15 to l\ grains) suffice to preserve one liter (1.7 pints) of 
broth from putrefaction. This class includes peroxide of hydrogen and 
bichloride of mercury. 

2d Class. “ Very powerful antiseptics,” or bodies of which from 
.10 grammes to 1.0 grammes (1.5 to 15 grains) are required to preserve 
one liter of broth. Iodine, chloride of gold, tetrachloride of platinum, 
hydrocyanic (prussic) acid and bromine come under this heading. 

3d Class. “Powerful antiseptics,” of which from 1.0 to 5.0 grammes 
(15 to 75 grains) are required. Chloroform, potassium bichromate, 
ammonia, thymol, phenol, permanganate of potassium, nitrate of lead, 
alum. 

Jfth Class. “Moderately antiseptic” bodies, from 5 to 20 grammes 
(75 to 300 grains) being required. Ilydrobromate of quinine, white 
arsenic, sulphate of strychnia, boric acid, arsenite of soda, hydrate of 
chloral, salic}date of soda, caustic soda. 

5th Class. “Slightly antiseptic substances,” from 20 to 100 grammes 
(300 to 1,500 grains) being required to preserve the liter of broth. 
Borate of soda, hydrochlorate of morphia, alcohol. 

6th Class. “ Very slightly antiseptic substances,” includes those 
bodies of which from 100 grammes to 300 grammes are required, and 
under this head M. Miguel mentions iodide of potassium, common salt, 
glycerine, ammonium sulphate, and sodium hyposulphite. Substances, 
such as sugar, which must be present in a much larger proportion in 
order to exercise a preservative action, are placed outside the category of 
antiseptics. 

The choice of the disinfectant, or antiseptic, for 'the uses of the 
embalmer should be made in accordance with the above table and other 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


F *>rV 

OO 4 


special considerations elsewhere discussed. In making this choice it 
should also be remembered that while an antiseptic agent is not neces¬ 
sarily a disinfectant, as a rule disinfectants are antiseptics; for putrefac¬ 
tive decomposition is due to the development of “ germs ” of the same 
class, and that which destroys the latter also destroys the bacteria of 
putrefaction, when brought in contact with them in sufficient quantity, 
or restrains their development when present in smaller amounts. Further 

(rt) Animal matter can be preserved from putrefaction either by 
congelation, and other natural antiseptics (See page 538), or 

(5) By preventing a direct contact of animal matter with the sur¬ 
rounding atmosphere, either by gases or unoxidizable substances, or 

(c) Animal substances may be combined with others to form new 
chemical compounds which will not readily putrefy. 

Of gaseous disinfectants we may best use sulphurous acid, chlorine 
or bromine, and to this list also may be added iodine. The results of 
recent researches prove that of the agents available from the cheapness 
as disinfectants, corrosive sublimate, permanganate of potassium, 
chlorine, bromine, and perhaps the chloride of zinc, are the only ones 
having sufficient germicidal power to be worthy of consideration as 
sporicides. 

But aside from efficiency there are other qualities requisite in the 
antiseptics best adapted to the embalmeFs use, for as Dr. Wywodzoff, of 
St. Petersburg, Russia, says: “ For perfect preservation of human bodies, 
the following things are necsssary: The body should remain in a soft 
and flexible condition for at least three months, the tissues should not 
change color, the material should not be injurious to the health of the 
operator, nor spoil the instruments used in the operation, and it must 
be either free from or have an agreeable odor, and be cheap, to fulfil the 
above conditions/' In short the perfect preservative for animal matter if 
ever found will be found to be: 

1. Colorless and odorless, or without unpleasant smell. 

2. Not corrosive nor poisonous, that is safe for general use. 

3. Able to preserve the body flexible, and of natural color. 

4. Cheap, if possible. 

5. Stable. 

G. Efficient, that is it must be able in case putrefaction has already 
begun to perform its duties as 

A reliable antiseptic, 1 that is prevent the evolution of gases, purging 
’ Disinfectant and [ and swelling, and also ought to be able to pre- 
An anti-ferment, J vent discoloration, and bleach if necessaiy. 

Have we any that will meet all these requirements? As yet there are 
none, for if there were, embalming would resolve itself into the simplest 
kind of mechanical work. As it is, it requires the best judgment, and all the 


538 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


knowledge of chemistry procurable, to select the proper antiseptics for 
each case; to this end we shall as briefly as possible review all the 
substances of which we can find any account of their use as antiseptics 
or disinfectants, noting the advantages and disadvantages of each. And 
first to make the list complete, we again mention: 

I. THE NATURAL DISINFECTANTS, 

or those which act by assisting putrefaction, and thus removing the 
offensive substance. They have already been discussed, as indicated by 
the accompanying reference: 

1. Air. (See page 229.) 

2. Water. (See page 132.) 

3. Soil. (See page 231.) 

4. Cold. (See page 232.) 

5. Heat. (See page 355.) 

The arguments pro and con cremation may be found in Section I, 
pages 16-24; but aside from the destruction of the body by fire, it is 
interesting to note how general has been the use of fire as a disinfecting 
agent. As early as the days of Hippocrates fires were lighted by his 
order in the public places in Athens during time of plague. These fires 
were made from resinous and odoriferous woods, and were undoubtedly 
of value. Paulet furthermore says: “This confidence in the purify¬ 
ing action of fire was very like that which was held in regard to that of 
the smoke of powder in cannonading; for it was the custom, and fre¬ 
quently recommended, to discharge in time of epidemics a large number 
of pieces of artillery at dawn and sunset, because in this way would be 
added the effect of the impetuous shock produced in the air to that of 
flame and the odor of powder, which is composed of substances said to 
be hostile to decomposition, such as sulphur and nitre. In this way it 
was thought that the aerial corpuscles were driven away or consumed.” 
If for corpuscles we substitute bacterial germs, we shall find the teach¬ 
ings of modern science very like that of Hippocrates; for hot steam 
(llO^-lSO 0 C.) is recommended by the American Health Association as 
the best sporicide known, and a heat of 300° F. is said to be destructive 
of all forms and germs of bacterial life. (See page 236.) 

II. Next to the natural disinfectants in historical order are the 
agents employed for the preservation of organic matter in the earliest 
times. These may be arranged in alphabetical order as follows: 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


539 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 
i . 
8 . 
9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13. 

14. 

15. 
1G. 


EARLIEST ANTISEPTICS. 


Alum. 

Balms. 

Cedria and turpentine. 
Charcoal. 

Desiccation. 

Fixed and aromatic oils. 
Honey. 

Natron. 

Pitch. 

Resin. 

Sea-salt. 

Smoke. 

Sulphur. 

Tannin. 

Vinegar. 

Wax. 




All of these substances exer¬ 
cised their preservative powers 
either by 

(a) Preventing direct contact 
with the air by means of antiseptic 
► oils, balms, honey, wax, etc., or 
(5) Formation of new chem¬ 
ical compounds which are less pu- 
trescible, as in the case of alum, 
salt, smoke, tannin, etc. 


✓ 


III. SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND UP TO THE 

BEGINNING OF THE PRESENT CENTURY. 


Absinth. 

Cloves. 

• 

Acetate and nitrate of lead. 

Coriander seed. 

Alcohol. 

Cumin. 

Aloes. 

Dried oranges. 

Ambergris. 

Gentian. 

Angelica root. 

Ginger. 

Balmgentle leaves. 

Gunpowder. 

Balsam of Copaiva. 

Hyssop. 

Balsam of Peru. 

Ice. 

Basilic. 

Iris root. 

Benzoin. 

Juniper fruit and seeds. 

Brine. 

Laurel. 

Calamite. 

Lavender. 

Calamus. 

Malmsey wine. 

Camphor. 

Marjory. 

Canella. 

Mercurial salts. 

Cardamum seed. 

Mercury. 

Caraway. 

Mineral acids. 

Cedar wood. 

Mint. 

Citron and orange peel. 

Musk. 

Civet. 

Myrrh. 




ANCIENT A^D MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


540 


Nitrate of potassium. 
Nitrate of silver. 
Nutmeg. 

Odoriferous rush. 
Olibanum. 

Olive oil. 

Orange flowers. 
Origanum. 

Quinia. 

Rosemary. 

Roses. 

Rue. 

Sage. 

Santal citron. 

Savory. 

Scordium. 


Southern wood. 
Spirits of wine. 
Spurge. 

Styrax. 

Sulphate of copper. 
Sulphate of iron. 
Sulphurous acid. 
Syrmaea. 


Tar. 


Tartrate of potash. 
Thvme. 

Urine. 

Valerian. 

Venice turpentine. 
Vinegar. 

White pepper. 



For convenience in arrangement, modern antiseptics will be consider¬ 
ed under the heads of (1) Gaseous Antiseptics ; (2) Chemical Antiseptics; 
(3) Patent Preservatives and processes not elsewhere described. 


1. GASEOUS ANTISEPTICS. 


Carbonic Acid. Carbonic Dioxide, See Carbonic Anhydride. 

Carbonic Anhydride. Synonyms: Carbonic acid gas, etc., see page 
138. Specific Gravity 1.529. A colorless, transparent, irrespirable gas v 
See page 44. (A.) 

Carbonic Monoxide and Anhydride Combined. The former of 
these is described on page 219. Combined with carbonic anhydride it has 
afforded excellent results as an antiseptic. See page 44. (A.) 

Chlorine. Specific Gravity 35.5 H. A greenish-colored, irritating 
gas pronounced bv Koch the best of the few certain disinfectants. 
(A. & 13.) 

Objections: It is a very irritating gas; its solution is incompatible 
with all salts of lead, silver, and compounds containing hydrogen. 

Hydrochloric Acid Gas. Synonym: Muriatic Acid. Specific 
Gravity 36.5 II. A colorless, irritating gas, with an acid taste, and 
sharp, irritating odor. (A. & 13.) It is only feebly disinfectant. See 
page 43. 

Muriatic Acid Gas. (See Hydrochloric Acid Gas.) 

Oxygen. (See page 111.) Buchner succeeded by supplying oxygen 
very freely in converting the so-called infectious hay-bacillus into 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS. ETC. 


541 


perfectly innocuous bacteria. Feltz found that compressed oxygen (15 
atmospheres) killed bacilli but was harmless to the spores. Bert showed 
that compressed oxygen killed the bacillus but had no effect on chemical 
poisons already developed in the liquid. 

Sulphurous Acid Gas. Synonyms: Sulphur Dioxide, Sulphur¬ 
ous Anhydride, Sulphurous Oxide. Specific Gravity 32.25 II. It is a 
pungent gas, having the odor of burning matches. It is not poisonous, 
is a good preventive of fermentation and good for bleaching. (See 
page 45.) 

Objections : It is not cheap, is unpleasant and unstable, and evolves 
sulphuretted hydrogen with decomposing tissues. The great objections 
however, to the use of all gases are their bulk, apparatus necessary for 
preparation, and their failure properly to permeate the tissues; hence they 
have never come into general use, and modern embalming relies exclu¬ 
sively upon 

2. CHEMICAL ANTISEPTICS. 

N. B. Those insoluble in water are printed in italics . (A), Antisep¬ 

tic; (D), Disinfectant; (S), Sporicide. 

Absolute Alcohol. Specific Gravity 0.79 Jj. Formula, C s II 6 0. A 
colorless, pungent, inflammable fluid, differing from ordinary alcohol in 
being free from water. It preserves by imbibing a portion of the water 
of composition, and bleaches, discolors and hardens the organs. (A.) 

Objections: Action upon the tissues, expensiveness, and volatility. 

Acetate of Aluminium. Formula, (C 2 H. i 0 2 ) (i (AL). A compound 
which can be kept only in the state of solution. It has a faint smell of 
acet ic acid, and possesses strong antiseptic properties. An aqueous solu¬ 
tion at 12.5° contains 10.6 per cent of it. By many this is considered 
one of the most valuable antiseptics and deodorizers. A. & I). 

Acetic Acid. (For synonyms, properties, etc. , see page 261.) Acetic 
acid preserves flesh only by drying it, and is said to be one of the least 
efficient of the disinfectants. A. & D. 

Objections: Disagreeable odor and inefficiency. 

Acetone. (See Wood Naphtha.) 

Alcohol. (See Ethyl Alcohol.) 

Alkalies. Concentrated lyes dissolve all animal matter, weak alka¬ 
line solutions disorganize more or less promptly the same substances. 
The alkalies are useful under certain conditions in transforming the fat 
of certain animal substances into soap, thus facilitating their desiccation. 
(See page 223.) 

Alum. Synonym : Double sulphate of alumina and potash. Specific 
gravity 1.724. Formula, AUKfiS0f)^2jH,0. A transparent, color¬ 
less salt, with an astringent taste. It is a good preservative agent for the 


542 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


membranous parts of the body. It is classed by Miguel among tlie pow¬ 
erful antiseptics. It is soluble in 0.27 parts of boiling water. 

Objections: Alum is decomposed and the animal matter unites with 
the alumina, and the liberated sulphuric acid produces alteration of the 
tissues. It is incompatible with corrosive sublimate, salts of lead, potash, 
ammonia, and vegetable infusions. 

Alumina, Hydrate of. Synonym: Aluminium hydrate. Formula, 
AlfiOH)^. A white, amorphous, inodorous, tasteless powder. It is 
soluble in acetic and the dilute mineral acids. 

Aluminium Acetate. (See Acetate of Aluminium). 

Aluminium Chloride. Formula, Al 2 Cl & . A substance crystalliz¬ 
ing in colorless, hexagonal prisms. Fusible, volatile. Very soluble. An 
impure solution is used as a disinfectant under the name of Chloralum. 

Object io7i: It is incompatible with mercurous, lead and silver salts. 

Aluminium Nitrate. This salt dissolved in brandy has been used 
for the preservation of soft objects. 

Aluminium Sulphate. Formula, Al 2 {S0j)^-fil8H 0. A white 
crystalline powder, permanent in the air, soluble in 1.2 parts of water at 
15° C. A. D. Its chief use is as an antiseptic. It is placed by Miguel in 
class 6, as it requires 250 grammes to the litre to prevent bacterial for¬ 
mation. 

Ammonia, Concentrated Solution. (For the properties of this 
soluble gas, see page 220.) A. D. Miguel considers ammonia one of the 
powerful antiseptics, for it requires but 1.4 grammes to the litre to act 
as an antiseptic. 

Ammonium Chloride. Synonyms: Sal-Ammoniac, Muriate of Am¬ 
monia. (See page 141.) 

Amyl Alcohol. Synonyms: Potato Spirit, Fusel Oil. Specific 
gravity, 0.818f Formula, C b H n OH. A colorless, oily liquid, having 
an acid taste and peculiar odor. It mixes with alcohol and ether, but 
not with water. A. It is a better antiseptic than ordinary alcohol. 
Belongs to Miguehs group 5. 

Objection: Its odor is nauseating, and provocative of severe headache. 

Aniline. Synonyms: Ami do-Benzene, Amido-Benzol, Phenylaminc, 
Kyanol. Specific gravity, 1.02 at 16°. Formula, CJfiN. A colorless 
liquid with a peculiar aromatic odor, and an acrid, burning taste. 
Soluble in 31 parts of cold water. A. It belongs to MigueTs third 
class of antiseptics, powerful antiseptics. 

Argentic Iodide. (See Silver, Iodide of.) 

Argentic Nitrate. (See Silver, Nitrate of.) 

Arsenic, White. (See Arsenious Acid.) 

Arsenious Acid. Synonyms: White Arsenic, Arsenic Trioxide, 
Arsenic. Specific gravity, 3.785. Formula, As z O z . A heavy white 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, “ETC. 


543 


solid, occurring either in transparent or semi-transparent masses, or as 
a white, crystalline powder. The crystalline modification is soluble in 
about 9 parts of water at 15°C., while the amorphous variety requires 25 
parts of water for solution. A. I). Koch found that a 1 to 2 per cent 
solution will kill the organisms of splenic fever in 6 to 10 days. Miguel 
places it second in his list of “moderate antiseptics,” as it requires 6 
grammes to the liter to prevent putrefaction in normal broth. 

Objections: It is very poisonous ; it seems to favor the dessication of 
bodies though it preserves them well. 

Arseniate of Soda. (See Sodium Arseniate.) 

Aseptol. (See Ortho-Phenol Sulphate.) 

Auric Chloride. (See Gold, Chloride of.) 

Benzine. Synonym: Benzolene. Specific gravity, 0.73. A color¬ 
less liquid obtained from crude petroleum. It is largely used in the arts 
as a solvent for fatty substances. It is soluble in about six times its vol¬ 
ume of alcohol. 

Benzoic Acid. Synonym: Phenyl-Formic Acid. Formula, 
Colorless, soft, needles or laminae of a silky luster, inodorous when cold 
and pure. Obtained from solutions in pearly needles or plates. It is 
soluble in 500 parts of water at 15°C., and in 15 parts of boiling water. 
A. D. The experiments of Andrews and Buchholtz place this the fifth 
in the list of antiseptics. Miguel places this in his list of “powerful 
antiseptics.” Gum benzoin contains benzoic acid, and has long been one 
of the best known antiseptics. 

Bitumen. (See Pisasphaltum.) 

Bleaching Powder. (See Lime, Chloride of.) 

Boracic Acid. Synonyms: Boric Acid, Orthoboric Acid. Specific 
gravity, 1.at 15°. Formula, IfBO 3 . Brilliant, crystalline plates, 
unctuous to the touch, odorless, slightly bitter, soluble in 25 parts of water 
at 10°. A. Five grammes to the litre will arrest putrefaction, accord¬ 
ing to Miguel. Moderately antiseptic. 

Borax. Synonyms : Biborate of Sodium, Borate of Sodium. Spe¬ 
cific gravity, 1.72. Formula, Na^B^+lOIfO. Colorless, transparent, 
hard prisms. At red heat forms a glass. Soluble in 16 parts of water at 
15°C. A. Its antiseptic powers are feeble, in the proportion of 70 to 
1000. Koch found borax in any ordinary solution incapable of killing 
the spores of splenic fever. 

Boric Acid. (See Boracic Acid.) 

Boro-Glycerine. A glacial, translucent, soluble substance without 
taste. It is prepared from glycerine and boracic acid. 

A. D. It is cheap, an excellent antiseptic, safe, odorless and not 
acted upon by tannin, or dilute acids. According to Buchholtz and 
Andrews it has about the same value as alcohol as an antiseptic. 


544 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


Objections: It is a poor disinfectant; it does not coagulate albu¬ 
men. 

Boro-Phosphate of Soda. (See United States Patents, No. 27G, 
24G, dated April 24, 1883.) 

Brandy. (See Kirschwasser and Ethyl Alcohol.) 

Bromine. Specific gravity, 2.99 at 15° C. Formula, Br. A 
heavy, dark, brownish-red, very volatile liquid, of an intense and 
suffocating odor. Soluble in 33 parts of water at 15°. 

A. D. S. A mild disinfectant ; Koch places bromine second in his 
list of certain disinfectants. Bromine is one of the few active antiseptics, 
a two per cent solution killing the spores within a day. Belongs to 
Miguel’s second class. 

Objections: The fumes are very irritating to throat and eyes. It 
stains the skin yellowish-brown. Like chlorine it can only „be used in 
very moderate quantities in inhabited rooms. 

Butyl Alcohol. Synonym: Propyl carbinol. Formula, C\II W 0. 
A colorless liquid, soluble in 10 parts water. 

A. An excellent antiseptic, being better than ordinary alcohol. 

Objection: Its odor is that of rancid butter. 

Calcium Hypochlorite. (See Lime, Chlorinated.) 

Carbolic Acid. Synonyms: Phenic acid, phenol, p>lienylic alcohol. 
Specific gravity, 1.065 at 18°. Formula, C^H^O. Long, colorless needles 
or crystalline masses, possessing a peculiar, distinctive odor, and a sharp, 
burning taste. Soluble in 20 parts of water at 15° C. 

A. D. Two per cent solutions of carbolic acid only hinder the 
development of spores, while even five per cent is not sufficient to kill 
them. One per cent solution killed splenic fever bacilli in a few 
minutes. Grouped by Miguel in class 3, or “powerful antiseptics,” 
requiring for efficiency 3.2 grammes to the litre. 

Objection: It is difficult to secure the proper quality, and it must 
be used in large quantities to be of any service. 

Caustic Soda. (See Soda, Caustic.) 

Charcoal. Specijic gravity, about 1.57. Brittle product of com¬ 
bustion of woody fiber with an insufficient supply of air. 

A. D. Charcoal has the property, when fresh-heated, of absorbing 
gases, taking up 0 volumes of oxygen, 90 of ammonia gas, and 30 of 
sulphuretted hydrogen. It is a powerful deodorant, and oxidizes 
offensive organic effluvia. 

Chloral Hydrate. Synonym: Chloral. Specific gravity, 1.575. 
Formula, C^HCI^OFIO^O. Colorless semi-transparent, needle-shaped 
crystals, or crystalline plates, possessing a peculiar ethereal odor and 
pungent taste. Soluble in about half their weight in water. 

A. It is not poisonous, is cheap, is said to bleach discolored 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


545 


tissues ; according to Buchholtz and Andrews a solution of one part in 
400 will arrest bacterial development. Belongs to Miguel’s fourth 
class. 

Objections: It is very irritating when powdered ; darkens with 
volatile sulphur compounds ; is decomposed by ammonia; forms a paste 
with fats. 

Ciiloralum. (See Aluminium Chloride.) 

Chloride of Aluminium. (See Aluminium Chloride.) 

Chloride of Cold. (See Gold, Chloride of.) 

Chloride of Iodine, Chloride of Lead, etc. (See Iodine, 
Chloride of, Lead, Chloride of, etc.) 

Chlorinated Soda. (See Sodium Hypochlorite.) 

Chloroform. Specific gravity, 1.502 at 15° C. Formula, CHCl 3 . 
A dense, colorless, volatile, and limpid liquid, of an agreeable, aromatic 
odor, and sweetish taste. Slightly soluble in water, one part requiring 
about 200 parts of water for solution. 

A. Placed in a jar with any part of the body which it is desired 
to preserve, will well preserve it, so long as the jar is kept closely corked 
and filled with vapor of chloroform. 

In proportion of 1 to 2 grammes to the litre of beef broth will 
prevent putrefaction. 

Chromic Acid. Synonym: Chromic anhydride. Specific gravity , 
2.819. Formula, Cr0 3 . This substance is improperly called chromic 
acid, the proper term being chromic anhydride, ft occurs in long, scar¬ 
let prisms of considerable luster, or in masses of loose, bright red, acicu- 
lar crystals. 

A. Chromic acid is said to have the greatest power of destroying 
infusoria. It is a very powerful oxidizing and bleaching agent, and 
stands seventh in Miguel’s list of antiseptics, ranking among “ very pow¬ 
erful 

Objections : Oxidizing properties in strong solution, and the crimson 
stain which it imparts to the tissues. 

Chromic Anhydride. (See Chromic Acid.) 

Cocoanut Oil. Cocoanut Oil is used in the South Sea Islands as a 
disinfectant and preservative. 

Copperas. (See Iron, Sulphate of.) 

Copper Nitrate. Synonym: Cupric nitrate. Formula, (Noj) z Cu. 
Deep blue, soluble crystals, highly corrosive. 

D. Feebly disinfectant. 

Copper Sulphate. Synonyms: Blue Vitrol, Cupric Sulphate. Spe¬ 
cific gravity, 2.277. Formula, CuS0 l -\-5ff 2 0. Large, transparent crys¬ 
tals of a deep blue color. Soluble in 2.G parts of water. 

A. Coagulates and destroys living organisms. One of Miguel’s very 
35 


546 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


powerful antiseptics, since it requires only 0.8 grammes to preserve a 
litre of broth from putrefaction. 

Corrosive Sublimate. Synonyms: Bichloride of Mercury, Mer¬ 
curic Chloride. Specific gravity, 5.Jf)8. Formula, HgCl o . Colorless, 
translucent, heavy crystalline masses, when obtained by sublimation, or 
small rhombic prisms when crystallized from solution. 

A. D. S. Koch says: “ Corrosive sublimate is one of the three cer¬ 
tain disinfectants, and stands at the head of the reliable disinfectants.” 
A solution of 1 to 1,000 of corrosive sublimate killed the resisting spores, 
and solutions of 1 to 15,000 are sufficient to kill the micro-organisms. 

Creasote. Synonym: Creosote. Specific gravity, 1.035 to 1.085 at 
12°. A mixture of various substances such as cresol, phlorol, etc., 
obtained from wood-tar. A colorless, or pale yellow, transparent, 
oily refractive liquid, of an odor resembling that of smoked meat and of 
a caustic, pungent taste. Very sparingly soluble in water. 

A. The experiments of Buchholtz and Andrews seem to show that 
a 1 to 2000 solution of creasote arrests bacterial developments. 

Objections: Expensiveness and disagreeable odor. 

Cresylic Acid. Synonyms: Cresylol, Cresol. Formula, CfifiO. A 
crystalline solid having the odor of creasote. 

Essential Oils. (See Turpentine.) 

Essence of Bitter Almonds. Synonyms: Essence of Mirbane, Ni- 
tro-Benzol, Nitro-Benzene. Specific gravity, 1.209 at 15°. Formula, 
CA{N0 2 ). 

A yellowish liquid with a sweet taste and a pronounced odor of bitter 
almonds. Almost insoluble in water, soluble very readily in alcohol and 
ether. 

A. It is placed in MigueBs third class, being, according to his table, 
exactly equivalent to carbolic acid in its antiseptic properties. 

Essence of Mirbane. (See Essence of Bitter Almonds.) 

Ethyl Alcohol. Synonyms: Alcohol, spirits of wine, ethyl hydrate 
etc. Specific gravity of the ordinary alcohol, containing about 15per cent 
of water, 0.835 to 0.838 Formula, C 2 IfO. A colorless, transparent, in¬ 
flammable liquid. 

A. A very old antiseptic, and one of the most popular, though feeble. 
More largely used than any other for museum specimens. Miguel states 
that it requires 1 to 10 to make it efficient. 

Objections: Poor antiseptic, expensive, volatile, not disinfectant and 
of very little value when decomposition has set in. 

Eucalyptol. Formula, C 12 H 2o O. An essential oil contained in the 
leaves of the Eucalyptus globulus, an Australian tree. A. Buch¬ 
holtz and Andrews* experiments show that in a solution of one part to 
666 it arrests bacterial development. 


t 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


Ferric Acetate. (See Iron, Acetate of.) 

Ferric Acid. Synonym: Ter oxide of Iron. An improper name for 
the ter oxide. Formula, Fe 2 0 3 . 

A. I). Highly recommended bv Elkund as an injection in connection 
with saturated solution of salt. 

Ferric Chloride. Synonyms: Chloride of iron, per chloride of iron. 
Formula, Fe 2 Cl 6 -\-12H 2 0. Orange-yellow, crystalline masses, or large, 
brownish-red tables. A. D. One to two per cent solution kills the 
organisms of splenic fever in six to ten days, but it is on the whole quite 
a feeble disinfectant. 

Ferric Hydrate. Synonym: Peroxhydrate of Iron. Formula, 
Fe 2 (HO) 6 . A reddish-brown, tasteless powder, destitute of grittiness. 

Ferrous Sulphate. (See Iron Sulphate of.) 

Fusel Oil. (See Amyl Alcohol.) 

Gallic Acid. C 7 H 6 0 5 -\-H 2 0. Small acicular prisms or silky need¬ 
les, or a crystalline powder of a pale fawn color, and containing one 
molecule of water of crystallization. A. Gallic acid acts in the same 
manner as Tannin, but more feebly. (See Tannin.) 

Glycerine. Synonym and properties, see page 263. A. A solu¬ 
tion of 1 to 400 is antiseptic and especially Avell adapted for the preserva¬ 
tion of small objects except that it dehydrates them if their specific 
gravity is less than that of glycerine. According to Buchholtz, one of 
the weakest antiseptics, requiring one part to four to arrest develop¬ 
ment. 

Objections: Does not bleach, does not disinfect, expensive antiseptic, 
exudes by injection. 

Gold, Chloride Of. Synonyms: Auric chloride, gold trichloride. 
Formula, AuCl 3 . Deliquescent yellow prisms, very soluble in water, 
alcohol and ether. A. Very powerful antiseptic; according to Miguel 
0.25 grammes to litre of normal beef broth arrest putrefaction. 

Objections: Expense, stains the skin purple. 

Gutta Percha. A tough, inelastic, brownish substance, having an 
odor similar to that of caoutchouc. Insoluble in water, alkaline solu¬ 
tions, dilute acids and fatty oils, soluble in benzine, oil of turpentine, 
essential oils, chloroform and carbon bisulphide. A. Applied to substances 
from its solution in chloroform or bisulphide of carbon, it leaves an in- 
pervious covering which prevents putrefaction. . 

IIFLLENIN. Synonym: Camphor of Elecampane. Formula, 
C„H %% 0« Insoluble in water, very soluble in alcohol and ether. A. 
It has lately been found in Paris to act as an antiseptic. 

Objections: Price too great for ordinary use. 

Hydrochloric Acid. Synonym: Muriatic acid. Specific gravity, 
from 1.120 to 1.160. Formula, HCl. A colorless, fuming liquid, of a 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, E'IC. 


548 

pungent suffocating odor, and corrosive acid taste. D. S. All the solu¬ 
ble chlorides have antiseptic properties. It is only feebly antiseptic. 

Hydrocyanic Acid. Synonym: Prussic acid. Specific gravity, 
when pure, 0.7058 at 7°. Formula, CNR. A thin, colorless, 
very poisonous and volatile liquid, with a very characteristic odor resem¬ 
bling that of peach blossoms. It mixes with water, alcohol and ether 
in all proportions. A. Belongs to MigueBs second class. 

Objections: Its poisonous qualities. 

IIY drogen Acetate. (See Acetic Acid.) 

Hydro-Naphthol. A compound analogous, chemically, to phenol, 
having similar properties. Solid at ordinary temperature, it is very 
sparingly soluble in water. Its solution preserves animal tissues and 
fluids in the proportion of 1 to 1000. 

Hyposulphite Sodium. (See Sodium Hyposulphite.) 

Iodine. Specific gravity, 5-95$ at 17°. Symbol, I. Heavy, 
brilliant, crystalline plates or scales, of an opaque bluish-black appearance 
and imperfect metallic luster. It possesses a peculiar odor similar to 
that of bromine and chlorine, though less penetrating. But sparingly 
soluble in water, requiring about 4500 parts. More soluble in gly¬ 
cerine. 

A. D. S. A mild disinfectant, but according to Koch one of the 
few very active antiseptics, a 2 per cent solution killing spores within a 
day. Belongs to MigueBs second class. 

Iodoform. Synonym: Teriodide of formyl. Specific gravity, 2. 
Formula, CRT S . Small, yellow, friable scales, with a sweetish taste and 
penetrating odor. Almost insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, 
ether, etc. 

Objection: Its characteristic disagreeable odor. 

Iodol. A compound very rich in iodine, of which it contains more 
than 80 per cent. A light-brown powder, which is seen to be crystalline 
under the lens. Tasteless, but having a faint odor. 

A. The great advantages claimed for it are that it contains so large 
a per cent of iodine, and has not the disagreeable odor of iodoform. 

Iron, Acetate of. Synonym: Ferric acetate. Formula, (C 2 H z 0.j^ 
(Fe z ). A dark-red, uncrystallizable substance, very soluble in alcohol 
and water. D. 

Objection : Like other acetates has feeble disinfecting qualities. 

Iron, Chloride of. (See Ferric Chloride.) 

Iron, Sulphate of. Synonyms: Copperas, green vitriol, ferrous 
sulphate. Specific gravity, 1.889. Formula, FeSOfir7H.fi. Trans¬ 
parent, pale bluish-green crystals soluble in 1.8 parts of water and 
insoluble in absolute alcohol. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


549 


A. D. Recommended bv the National Board of Health as the best 

%j 

disinfectant for cess-pools, stables, drains, etc. 

According to Buchholtz and Andrews, arrests bacterial development 
in the proportion of 1 part to 100. 

Iron, Persulphate. Synonym : Ferric sulphate. Formula , Fe,0 3 . 
SS0 3 . A buff-colored, amorphous mass which dissolves slowly in water. 

A. D. This salt of iron has been ranked among the best antiputrids. 

Objection: According to the statement of several English writers, 
this substance attacks the bones. 

Kirschwasser. Synonym: Cherry brandy. 

A. Cherry brandy in which nitrate of alumina has been dissolved is 
spoken of by Gannal as a valuable liquid for the preservation of soft 
objects. (See Aluminium Nitrate.) 

Lead Acetate. Synonym: Sugar of Lead. Formula, Pb (C,I1>0 2 ), 
+3H,0. 

Large, transparent, sweetish prisms or plates, or heavy crystalline 
masses. Soluble in 1.5 parts cold water and 8 parts alcohol. Disinfect¬ 
ing properties similar to those of the chloride, which see. 

Lead Chloride. Synonym: Plumbic chloride. Formula, PbCl 2 . 
Plates, or silky, hexagonal needles of white color. 

A. D. Antiseptic in the proportion of 2.1 grammes to the litre of 
beef broth, according to Miguel. 

Lead salts are disinfectant only as they combine with sulphur com¬ 
pounds to form an insoluble sulphide of lead. 

Objection: The soluble salts of lead cannot be mixed with alum or 
corrosive sublimate. 

Lead Nitrate. Synonym: Plumbic nitrate. Formula, Pb {NO s ) 2 . 
Colorless, transparent or opaque crystals, very soluble in water, almost in¬ 
soluble in alcohol. A. D. It will not prevent the putrefaction of animal 
matter, but is useful as a disinfectant of putrescent animal fluids. One 
of MiguePs “efficient antiseptics/' 

Lime. Synonyms: Quicklime, calx, oxide of calcium. Specif c gravity 
2 3. Formula, CaO. White or grayish, amorphous masses, odorless and 
caustic. Slightly soluble in water. 

D. Used in Naples, Paris and China in the coffins of the dead. 

Objections: It is corrosive and only efficient when concentrated. 

Lime, Chlorinated. Synonyms: Chloride of lime, bleaching pow¬ 
der. Composed principally of calcium chloride, CaCl 2 , and hypochlorite 
(C10) 2 Ca.A homogeneous, dull-white, granular powder, possessing the 
odor of hypochlorous acid. Soluble in cold water. 

D. Largely used as a disinfectant. Bosquet states tl^at there are no 
satisfactory facts as to the powers of the hypochlorites to destroy the in¬ 
fectious matter of fevers. 


550 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


Magnesium Chloride. Formula, Mg Cl 2 . A very deliquescent salt. 
It is used as one of the ingredients of SweberWs disinfectant. 

Malt Spirit. (See Ethyl Alcohol.) 

Manganese Sulphate. Synonym : Manganous sulphate. Formula, 
MnSOi+JfFfzO. Colorless or pale rose-colored crystals, very soluble in 
water, insoluble in alcholiol. 

D. Placed second by Ure in his list of disinfectants. 

Mercuric Chloride. (See Corrosive Sublimate.) 

Mercuric Iodide. Synonyms: Red iodide of mercury, hiniodide of 
mercury. Specific gravity 6.3. Formula, Hgl 2 . A heavy, amorphous, 
scarlet-red powder, or small, brilliant, octahedral crystals. It is nearly 
insoluble in cold water, soluble in 130 parts cold alcohol, less soluble in 
ether, and very little in glycerine. 

A. D. S. According to Miguel, it stands at the head of the antisep¬ 
tics. In the proportion of 0.025 grammes to a litre of beef broth it is able 
to prevent putrefaction. 

Mercuric Nitrate. Formula, 2Hg(N0f). 2 .H 2 0. Bulky crystals or 
crystalline powder. 

A. D. S. According to Koch, a solution of 1 to 1000 kills bacterial 
spores in ten minutes. 

Mercuric Sulphate. Formula, HgSOi. Crystalline salt. 

A. I). S. A solution of 1 to 1000 of mercuric sulphate kills bacterial 
spores in ten minutes, according to Koch. 

Mineral Acids. (See Hydrochloric Acid, Sulphuric Acid, etc.) 

Morphine Hydrochlorate. Synonym: Hydrochlorate of mor 
phine or morphia. Formula, (f IT^N() 2 HOl-\-3H 2 O. White, flexible, 
acicular crystals, of a silky luster, or larger transparent prisms. Soluble 
in water, alcohol and glycerine, but insoluble in ether. 

A. Has some feeble antiseptic properties. 

Muriate of Ammonia. (See Ammonium Chloride.) 

Muriatic Acid. (See Hydrochloric Acid.) 

M yrtol . A balsam. 

A. D. By its presence it prevents the decomposition of fermentative 
and putrescible organic substances. 

Nitric Acid. Synonym: Aqua For tis. Specific gravity, 1.530, when 
most concentrated. Formula, HN0 2 . A colorless, fuming, corrosive 
liquid. 

A. S. Its chief value lies in its power to prevent the multiplication 
of bacteria and its low price. 

Nitro-Benzol. (See Essence of Bitter Almonds.) 

Nitrogen Tetroxide. Synonym: Nitrogen peroxide, hyponitric 
acid. Formula, N0 2 . This substance forms the greater part of the 
reddish-brown fumes evolved when nitrous oxide gas escapes into the air. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


551 


At 9° nitrogen tetroxicle solidifies to long prisms. It is decomposed by 
water. 


I). To the discoverer of the virtue of this substance as a disinfect¬ 
ant, the British government awarded the sum of £5000. 

Oil of Tar. The vapor of oil of tar is a valuable disinfecting agent, 
probably on account of the creasote which it contains. (See Creasote.) 

Ortho-Phenol Sulphate. Synonym: Aseptol. Formula, CJIJI 2 SO±. 
A syrupy, brown fluid, of aromatic odor, insoluble in alcohol, glycerine, 
and water. 

A. I).' F. Ilueppe believes this is destined to take the place of car¬ 
bolic acid as an antiseptic and disinfectant. It is not irritating in 10 
per cent solution, and is an antiseptic of equal value with carbolic acid, 
besides having the advantage of a pleasanter odor, greater solubility, and 
being less irritating and toxic. 

Osmic Acid. An improper name given to the oxide of osmium. 
Formula , OsO±. 


A. Osmic acid is placed sixth in Miguel’s list of antiseptics, being 
at the head of his second class. It is especially valuable for albumen- 
oids, which it coagulates. 

Objection : Its vapor is intensely irritating. 

Oxy-Muriate of Mercury. Synonyms: Ammoniated mercury, 
white precipitate, mercuric oxy-chloride. Formula, 11y XII., CL A white 
powder insoluble in water, alcohol and ether; has recently been brought 
into prominence by Lister as the coming antiseptic dressing. 

Ozone. Ozone differs from oxygen only in its increased power of 
oxidation. For properties seeox}^gen. A. and P., presumably by its 
oxidation of septic matter. Turpentine and the other essential oils are 
by some chemists supposed to owe their antiseptic power to the fact that 
by exposure to sunlight they give off constantly ozone. 

Palm Wine One of the earliest of preservatives, undoubtedly owed 
what value it had to the alcohol which it contained. 

Paraffin. A colorless crystalline solid, first discovered in beech- 
wood tar, and since prepared on a large scale from bituminous shale. 
Paraffin is without odor or taste, is somewhat brittle and closely resembles 
spermaceti in appearance, fusing at 110 C> F. Soluble in oil of turpentine 
and kerosene, but generally insoluble in other menstrua. A., only as 
it protects from the atmosphere and bacterial germs floating therein. 
Has been successfully used in the preservation of meats which are 
immersed in melted paraffin from which they can be freed by plunging 
into hot water. 

Peroxide of Hydrogen. Synonym: Oxygenated icater. Formula, 
II 2 0 2 - Is put upon the market in the form of a concentrated aqueous 
solution. Specific gravity, 1.4.52: a transparent liquid of a bitter taste 


552 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


and less volatile than water. Miguel ranks peroxide of hydrogen as one 
of the most efficient of antiseptics (0.025 gramme for the litre), stand¬ 
ing next in value to argentic iodide. 

Objections: It is unstable and expensive and can not be combined in 
solution with any metallic salt. Its chief value is probably as a bleacher. 

Phenic Acid. (See Carbolic Acid.) 

Phenol. (See Carbolic Acid.) 

Phenyl Alcohol. (See Carbolic Acid.) 

Phenylic Acid. (See Carbolic Acid.) 

Picric Acid. Synonyms: Trinitrophenol, Trinitrophenic acid, C\- 
II, ( NO),OH . 

Properties: Brilliant, yellow, rectangular plates, intensely bit¬ 

ter and sparingly soluble in water but readily so in alcohol, ether and 
benzine. Its antiseptic properties are not very great, as it stands only 
seventeenth in MiguePs list. 

Objections: Its sparing solubility, yellow stain which it imparts to 
all tissues and small preservative properties. 

Pisasphaltum. Synonym: Bitumen Judaicum, or Jews’ Pitch, 
was an impure bituminous matter obtained from the Dead Sea, and was 
once largely used in embalming. (See Bitumen.) 

Pitch. (See Tar.) Is an impure turpentine obtained by burning 
the wood of the pine tree ; was in antiquity largely used to arrest alcoholic 
fermentation, Calabrian pitch being most highly esteemed for that pur¬ 
pose, but in modern times is entirely replaced by more reliable anti-fer¬ 
ments, except on ship board. 

Platinic Tetrachloride. Formula: PtCl, Platinic chloride . 

Properties : Yellow needles, very soluble in water, alcohol and ether. 
Miguel places the chloride of platinum among his most powerful antisep¬ 
tics, class two, 0.3 gramme to a litre of broth being sufficient to render 
it antiseptic. 

Objections: High price and color. 

Plumbic Acetate. Synonym: Acetate of lead, Sugar of lead. 
Formula, Pb(C 2 H- s O) 2 -\-3HJ). (See Lead Acetate.) 

Plumbic Chloride. (See Lead Chloride.) 

Plumbic Nitrate. (See Lead Nitrate.) 

Potassa. Synonym: Potash, Caustic potash, Pearl-ash. Formula, 
KOH. 

Properties: A deliquescent brownish, grayish or bluish solid, 
which is readily soluble in alcohol and in less than its own weight of 
water. A. and D. only as it destroys albumenoid matters for which it 
is an excellent solvent ; hence it has been used with excellent effect in 
the disinfection of sewerage. 

Objections: Its caustic properties. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


Potassium Bichromate. Bichromate of potash. Formula, K., Cr 2 0-. 

Properties: Large, transparent, orange red crystals (Specific gravity 
2.6), which are soluble in water, but are insoluble in alcohol. A. & D. 
Solution of bichromate of potassium (1 to 100) has been very successful!}' 
used for arterial injection. Miguel found it efficient as an antiseptic, in 
the proportion of 1.2 parts to 1000 of beef broth, probably by coagu¬ 
lation of the albuminoids. # 

Objections: Its color is an insuperable objection to its use as an em¬ 
balming agent, and it is, moreover, incompatible with all soluble salts of 
mercury, lead, silver and zinc. 

Potassium Chromate. Yellow Chromate of Potash. Formula, 
K 2 Or 0 4 . 

Properties: Yellow, anhydrous crystals of a cool, bitter, dis¬ 
agreeable taste, more readily soluble in water than the bichromate. A. 
& D. According to Miguel, efficient as an antiseptic in the proportion 
of 1.3 parts to 1000 of beef broth. 

Objections: Its color, like that of the bichromate, is the most seri¬ 
ous obstacle to its use as an antiseptic. 

Potassium Cyanide. Cyanide of Potash. Formula, KCN. 

Properties: A white deliquescent salt, odorless when dry, but hav¬ 
ing a peach-leaf odor when moist. It is readily soluble in water and 
sparingly so in alcohol, if strong; more so in weak alcohol. A. & I). 
One of the weakest of the antiseptics, for according to Miguel it 
requires 165 grammes to the litre to prevent putrefaction in beef 
broth. 

Potassium Hydrate. (See Potassa.) 

Potassium Iodide. Iodide of potash, Iodide of potassa. Formula, 

FI. 

Properties: Potassium iodide is a semi-opaque, crystalline solid, 
permanent in dry air, but somewhat deliquescent in moist. It has an 
acrid, saline taste and is readily soluble in water and alcohol. A & I). 
Potassium iodide is one of the feebler of the antiseptics, according to 
Miguel, requiring as much as 150 parts to 1000 to prevent the develop¬ 
ment of bacteria. 

Objections : High price and slight efficiency. 

Potassio-Mercurio Iodide. Double iodide of mercury and potash. 

Preparations: 3§ grains of mercuric iodide will exactly combine 

with 2| grains of potassium iodide to form this salt of mercury, 
which is most conveniently preserved in solution. It can, how¬ 
ever, be isolated and appears as a yellow, crystalline salt which is soluble, 
especially so in solutions of potassium iodide, or of corrosive sublimate. 
A. & D. It is-claimed that this salt is more efficient than corrosive 
sublimate, and is worthy of more extended trials. 


554 


ANCIENT ANI) MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


Potassium Bicarbonate. Acid curbonate of potash. Formula, 

KHCCf. 

Properties: Transparent, colorless crystals, inodorous, and of a 

slightly alkaline taste. They are soluble in water, but insoluble in 
alcohol, and have slight disinfectant properties. 

Potassium Nitrate. Nitrate of potash, Saltpetre. Formula, 
A r N0 3 . • ■ 

Properties : Large, transparent, colorless crystals, which are odor¬ 
less, but having a sharp, cooling taste, and are soluble in water. Nitre 
is one of the oldest of the preservatives, and is especially valuable for its 
power of restoring the normal red color to dead muscle, on which account 
it is largely used by packers in the preservation of meat; but for all 
other purposes it has been well replaced by more efficient antiseptics. 

Potassium Permanganate. Permanganate of potassa, Hyper- 
manganate, Symbol, K 2 Mn 2 0 & . 

Properties'. Slender, prismatic’ crystals without odor, but having a 
sweetish, astringent taste. Permanganate of potassium is imme¬ 
diately decomposed by alcohol but dissolves readily in water forming a 
beautiful solution. 

A. & D. If it were not for its coloring all tissues with which it is 
brought in contact, this salt would be one of the most largely used 
of the antiseptics, for according to Miguel 34 parts to 1000 are suffici¬ 
ent. It is also valuable as a disinfectant, a few droj^s of 1 per cent 
solution thoroughly disinfecting 10 c.c. of normal beef solution. (1:10). 

Objections : Color and the ease with which it is oxidized, for perman¬ 
ganate of potassium can hardly be preserved in any other solvent than 
pure distilled water. 

Potassium Prussiate. Yellow prussiate of potash, Potassium, fer- 
rocyanide, A\ Fe(CN) f If 0; Atomic iveight, J+21.9. 

Properties: Large yellow translucent crystals which are tough and 
flexible and undergo no change by exposure to the atmosphere. Ferro- 
cvanide of potassium is soluble in 4 parts of water, but is not dissolved 
by alcohol. 

A. & D. Its antiseptic powers are feeble according to Miguel as much 
as 185 grammes being requisite to preserve a litre of beef broth. 

Objections: Color and feeble antiseptic properties. 

Potassium Sulphocyanide. Sulpliocyanide of potash, Thiocy- 
anide. 

Properties: White deliquescent crystalline substance, very soluble in 
water and also in alcohol. 

A. & D. It has feeble antiseptic properties, requiring, according to 
Miguel, as much as 120 grammes to the litre to render beef broth anti¬ 
septic. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


555 


Objections : Very poisonous and inefficient. 

Propyl Alcohol. Propionic alcohol. Formula , C^OH. 

Properties : Normal propyl alcohol is an oily liquid with a disagree¬ 
able odor, soluble in water, but not in all proportions as is ordinary 
alcohol. Specific Gravit} r 0.79. 

A. & 1). It is said by some to be a better antiseptic than ordinary 
alcohol, but further experimentation is needed to establish its actual 
value. 

Objections : Its vile odor. 

Pyroacetic Acid. (See Wood Naphtha.) 

Pyroligneolts Acid. Is not a definite chemical compound, but a 
mixture of many obtained by the distillation of wood for the purpose of 
preparing wood vinegar and acetic acid. It is a dark, pungent liquid 
with an empyreumatic odor and disagreeable taste. 

A. & D. The antiseptic value of pyroligneous acid is probably largely 
due to the creasote which it contains; many cases are reported in which 
animal matter has been successfully preserved by the use of the crude 
acid. (See Creasote.) 

Objections: The unpleasant odor of pyroligneous acid and its less 
efficiency than the creasote contained in it. 

Quinine. Quinina , quinia, chinium. Formula, C z6 H 2i JV s O z2 ~{-^H z O; 
1378. 

Properties: A well known white crystalline, flaky powder, slightly 
efflorescent on exposure. It has a slightly alkaline reaction, and is solu¬ 
ble in about 1,600 parts of cold water, 700 boiling, or 6 parts cold alcohol. 
It is also dissolved by ether, chloroform, carbon bisulphide, benzol, and 
ammonia water. 

A. & D. Andrews and Bucliholtz’s experiments shows that quinine 

ranks next to carbolic acid as an antiseptic. According to Koch a 1 to 2 

per cent solution of quinine will kill in six to eight days the lower forms 

of life. It is also feeblv disinfectant. 

*/ 

Hydrobromate of quinine was the salt tested by Miguel and he re¬ 
ports it as standing at the head of the moderately antiseptic substances 
requiring 5-£ grammes to the litre. 

Objections: The high price of the alkaloid and its moderate value as 
an antiseptic are against its general use. 

Quinoline-Chloral and Quinaline-Resorcin were some years 
ago proposed as reliable antiseptics, but aside from a reference to their 
use for this purpose in the New Remedies for 1869, page 168, we can find 
no account of their properties or value. They are derivates of chinoline, 
C 9 H 7 N n a coal tar alkaloid, but none of the standard works on organic 
chemistry give any description of these substances. 

Resins, from the time of the Egyptians have largely been used for 


55 G 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


their preservative properties, for it has been known from time imme¬ 
morial that resinous woods, such as cedar, do not decay rapidly, and hence 
they were used in early times for coffins by the rich, and pine boughs 
and needles in their graves by the poor. The value of these resins large¬ 
ly depends upon the essential oils which they contain and which are now 
substituted for them. (See Turpentine, Cedar, etc.) 

Salt of Alembroth. (See Ammoniated Mercury and White Pre¬ 
cipitate.) As has already been said under the head of ammoniated mer¬ 
cury, this salt is by some considered the coming antiseptic. One of 
these is Sir Joseph Lister, to whom antiseptic surgery owes so much. 
Carbolic acid was at first his favorite; later it was superseded by corro¬ 
sive sublimate, and this has latterly been entirely displaced by sal alem¬ 
broth for surgical dressings. It is prepared by the sublimation of a 
mixture of mercuric chloride and muriate of ammonia, and is used Dv 
Lister in 1 to 100 solution either on cotton, wool, lint or bandages soaked 
in this solution and dried before using. 

Sal Ammoniac. (See Ammonium Chloride.) 

Salicylic Acid and tiie Salicylates. Are obtained either from 
oil of wintergreen, which contains methyl salicylate, or from carbolic 
acid by sending a current of carbonic acid gas through it. Salicylic acid 
(IIO) CO (OH) (C 6 II 4 ) occurs in white, prismatic crystals which are freely 
soluble in alcohol, ether and hot water, but only very sparingly in cold. 
(1 to 1800.) 

A. & D. Salicylic acid is an excellent antiseptic for the preserva¬ 
tion of milk and liquids, but its use for the preservation of meat has 
been disappointing, for after the lapse of a few days an unpleasant odor 
is developed, which, however, is not that of putridity. Buchhoitz's 
experiments prove that salicylic acid has the power of arresting bacte¬ 
rial development in the proportion of 1 part to 066, and Miguel's tables 
show that one gramme to the litre will preserve beef broth from putre¬ 
faction. 

Objections: Its sparing solubility and the unpleasant odor frequently 
evolved, unless the acid is brought in contact with all parts of the tissues 
by injection. On the* other hand, salicylic acid is comparatively cheap 
and stable, odorless and not poisonous. The salicylates have about the 
same properties as the salicylic acid except that they are more readily 
soluble in water and are efficient in the proportion 1 to 100. 

Silver Iodide, (nynonyms: Argentic Iodide. Iodide of Silver.) 
Symbol, AyI. 

Properties: A pale yellow salt, nearly insoluble in water and also in 
aqua ammonia, wherein it differs from the other salts of silver. Soluble 
in concentrated aqueous solutions of common salt or chloride of potassium. 

A. & D. Miguel places the iodide of silver as the second on his list 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 557 

of very powerful antiseptics, according to his experiments arresting bac¬ 
terial development in the proportion of 0.03 parts to a thousand. 

Objections : Sparing solubility and change of color with light. 

Silver Nitrate. ( Synonyms : Argentic Nitrate, Nitrate of Silver , 
Lunar Caustic, Symbol AgNO- 6 .) 

Properties : Anhydrous, transparent crystals, or, when fused, white, 
translucent masses (specific gravity 4.32), when perfectly pure it is not 
acted upon by light, but in contact with organic matter rapidly blackens. 
Soluble in 0.8 parts of water and 26 parts of alcohol at 59°F. 

A. & D. Nitrate of Silver, according to Miguel, stands fifth in his 
list of powerful antiseptics, 0.08 parts to 1,000 being sufficient to prevent 
putrefaction in beef broth. 

Smoke. (See Creasote.) 

Soda. Caustic soda, soda, lye, sodic hydrate. Formula, NaOH. 

Properties: A hard, white substance, very deliquescent but later 
becoming dry from the absorption of carbonic anhydride from the atmos¬ 
phere. Caustic soda is readily soluble in cold water (1 to 1.7) and more 
so in hot. 

A. & D. Caustic soda is placed by Miguel among his moderately 
antiseptic substances, 18 grammes being required to arrest putrefaction 
in a litre of beef broth. 

Sodium Acetate. Acetate of soda, sodii acetas. Formula, NaC 2 H 50 . 

Properties: Large, colorless, transparent prisms which are soluble 
in water and alcohol. 

A. & I). Like all soluble acetates, acetate of soda has feeble anti¬ 
septic powers. 

Sodium Arseniate. ( Synonyms: Arseniate of soda, Sodii arsenias. 

Symbol, Na 2 H AsO^fillJ); Atomic weight ; 311.9. 

Properties : Colorless, transparent crystals containing 40^ of water 
of crystallization. They effloresce slightly in dry air and are soluble in 
4 parts of water and but sparingly so in cold alcohol. 

A. & I). Arseniate or arsenite of soda, as it is frequently called, has 
long been used as an arterial injection in the proportion of one pound to 
a gallon of water. Nine parts to a thousand, according to Miguel, acts 
as a moderately effecient antiseptic, being sufficient in this proportion to 
prevent putrefactive changes in beef broth. 

Sodium Benzoate. Benzoate of soda, sodii benzoas, NaC 1 H h O i -\- 
HJ). 

Properties: Colorless needle-shaped crystals which are odorless or 
have a faintly aromatic odor. They are freely soluble in cold water 
(1 to 1.8) or alcohol, and still more so in boiling water or alcohol. Not 
poisonous. 

A. & I). According to Andrews and Buchholtz, sodium benzoate is 


558 


ANCIENT ANI) MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


quite efficient to arrest bacterial development, a solution as weak as one 
part to 2000 being sufficient for that purpose. 

Sodium Bicarbonate Soclii bicarbonas. Formula, NatICO 3 . 

Molecular lueight, 8Jf. 

Properties : White opaque masses which are permanent in the air 
and soluble in 11.3 parts of water at ordinary temperatures, but insoluble 
in alcohol. 

A. & D. The chief value of bicarbonate of soda to the embalmer seems 
to be as a disinfectant, for which purpose it is highly recommended by 
Dr. Muscroft. 

Sodium Chloride. {Common salt, muriate of soda.) Formula, Fa Cl, 
Properties: The properties of common salt are too well known to need 
any extended description here. It is almost equally soluble in water at all 
temperatures (35.39 parts to 100); also soluble in glycerine, but not in 
alcohol, ether or chloroform. 

A. & D. The use of brine as a preservative has been practiced from 
the earliest times, but modern investigations prove that it is one of the 
weakest of the antiseptics, Miguel classing it as only slightly antiseptic, 
for it requires as large a proportion as 105 parts to 1,000 to exer¬ 
cise its preservative powers in beef broth. Tidy suggests that its anti¬ 
septic properties are due to its power of extracting water from the tissues. 

Advantages: Cheapness and ready solubility. 

Sodium Hypochlorite. See Labarraque’s Solution. 

Sodium Hyposulphite. Sodii hyposulphis, sodium thiosulphate. 
Preparation : This salt can be prepared by mixing finely powdered car¬ 
bonate of soda with flowers of sulphur, and heating in a porcelain dish, 
with constant agitation until it takes fire. The residue is then dissolved in 
water and boiled with sulphur and evaporated to dryness. As thus pre¬ 
pared it forms large transparent crystals (Specific gravity 1.7 ), readily 
soluble in water and turpentine, but not in alcohol. 

A. & D. Sodium hyposulphite at one time .enjoyed quite a reputa¬ 
tion as a preservative, it having been successfully employed by Sucquet 
in his famous competitive trial (see page 47,) and in saturated solution 
will undoubtedly preserve bodies for months, but it is not the best of our 
antiseptics, for according to Miguel's experiments it requires 265 
grammes to a litre to prevent putrefaction in beef broth. 

Sodium Salicylate. (See Salicylic Acid.) 

Sodium Silicate. Silicate of soda, soluble glass, Verre soluble . 
Properties: As ordinarily seen, it is put upon the market in the form of 
an aqueous solution, prepared by fusing sand and sodium carbonate to¬ 
gether, and digesting in water. This solution is a viscid fluid of a vel- 
lowish hue, and on evaporation leaves behind a glassy film, which is 
entirely unacted upon by the air. This property has suggested its use as 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


55 D 


an antiseptic, and possibly the substance was known in the days of Hero¬ 
dotus, for he informs us that the Macrovians dried their dead before a 
slow fire, then coated them with stucco or chalk and covered the whole 
with glass. (Book 3.) 

A. & D. Mildly antiseptic, for it seems to have some power of arrest¬ 
ing vinous fermentation, and by Richardson is highly recommended 
as an injection, after one of chloride of zinc, to harden the body. 

Sodium sulphate. Sulphate of Soda, Glauber’s salt, Na 2 S0 i fiH 2 0. 

Properties : Large, colorless, transparent crystals (Specific gravity 
1.48,) containing more than fifty per cent of water of crystallization. 
They are very soluble in water, and also in glycerine, but not in alcohol. 

A. & D. Sulphate of soda has, like nitre, somewhat remarkable pre¬ 
servative properties, for many of the so-called natural mummies are 
found in caves whose soil and atmosphere are saturated with sulphate of 
soda. (See page 30). Very inefficient as an antiseptic. (See Migueks 
table.) 

Spices were used by the Egyptians, Romans, and Hebrews in the em¬ 
balming and preservation of their dead, and hence undoubtedly are the 
most ancient of antiseptics and disinfectants. The body of Jesus was 
wound “in linen cloths with spices, as is the manner of the Jews — a 
mixture of myrrh and aloes about a hundred weight.” A. & D. The 
value of spices as a preservative depends on the essential oils contained in 
them. (See Essential Oils.) 

Storax. Synonym: Styrax. The balsamic juice obtained from the 
Liquidambar orientate, or “sweet gum.” It is a source of benzoic acid. 

Strychnia. Synonym: Strychnine. Formula, C 2l H 22 N 2 0. i . Small, 
brilliant, colorless, transparent or white crystals, permanent in the air. 
It is soluble in 6700 parts of water, and 110 parts of alcohol at 15°. 
More soluble in chloroform. A. & D. According to Miguel, sulphate 
of strychnia will prevent putrefaction in the proportion of seven grammes 
to the litre of normal beef broth. Hence placed by him among “mod¬ 
erate antiseptics.” According to Schutzenberger, nux vomica (the source 
of strychnia) does not retard vinous fermentation, but prevents putre¬ 
faction. 

Sugar and Syrup. Synonyms: Saccharose, Cane sugar. Specific 
gravity, 1.606. Formula, C l2 II 22 O n . Small, white prisms, or large, yel¬ 
lowish, transparent crystals. It is very soluble in water, dissolving in 
about one-third its weight of cold water, and more abundantly in hot 
water. It is insoluble in absolute alcohol or ether. A. Its antiseptic 
power is probably due to its property of extracting water from various 
organic substances. A cane-sugar syrup is largely used as an ingredient 
of the various preservative fluids. 

Sugar of Lead. (See Lead Acetate.) 


560 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


Sulphate of Aluminium, Iron, etc. (See Aluminium Sulphate, 
Iron Sulphate, etc.) 

Sulphite of Sodium. A colorless salt having the formula, Ha 2 SO s -{- 
7II.J). Its action is very similar to that of the hyposulphite. (See So¬ 
dium Hyposulphite.) 

SULPHUR. Specific gravity, 2.07. Symbol, S. An element occur¬ 
ring both free and combined in nature. It occurs in yellow, transparent 
crystals in the form of rhombic octahedra. Sulphur is insoluble in water 
and most organic liquids, but freely soluble in carbon disulphide. A. & D. 
It is perhaps the earliest of the disinfectants. Ulysses is represented as 
ordering lire and sulphur to be brought to purify the dwelling which 
had become infected by the dead. Pliny also speaks of a religious exer¬ 
cise having for its object the purification of houses by the burning of 
sulphur. 

According to the National Board of Health, roll sulphur is the best 
disinfectant for fumigation, and should be fired in iron pans standing in 
tubs containing a little water, the room being kept tightly closed for 
twenty-four hours. 

Burning sulphur evolves sulphurous acid, which is one of the best 
disinfectants. 

Sulphuric Acid. Specific gravity, 1.8Jfi6. Formula , H 2 SO±. A 
dense, colorless, highly corrosive liquid, having a strong attraction for 
water, and drawing it or its elements from organic compounds immersed 
in or mixed with the acid. It dissolves most of the metals, forming their 
sulphates. 

A. I). S. According to Buchholtz and Andrews, it has antiseptic 
properties in the proportion of 1 to 151. Koch, however, found a sul¬ 
phuric acid solution absolutely incapable of killing splenic fever 
spores. 

Sulphurous Acid. A colorless liquid, possessing the characteristic 
suffocating odor of burning sulphur, obtained by saturating water with 
sulphur dioxide gas, S0 2 . It first reddens and then bleaches vegetable 
colors, but without destroying them. 

A. & I). Said to have the least effect of any of the inorganic acids 
on infusoria, though considerably used as medicine in diphtheria, etc. 
It is a good antiferment, good for bleaching, and not poisonous. 

Objections: Not cheap; unpleasant and unstable; evolves sulphuretted 
hydrogen with decomposing tissues. 

Tannic Acid. Synonym: Tannin. Formula, C x JL^O*. Amor¬ 
phous, friable, porous and inodorous masses, or thin shining scales of a 
pale, greenish-yellow color, and feeble, mild odor. 

Tannic acid is soluble in six parts of water or glycerine, and in less 
than its own weight of diluted alcohol. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


501 


A. The preservative effects of tannic acid seem to be chiefly ex¬ 
erted upon the skin, which it converts into an imputrescible leather, but 
does not seem to have any effect upon muscular tissues. 

Tannin. (See Tannic Acid). 

Tartar Emetic. Synonyms: Antimonii et potasses tartras, Tar- 
tarized antimony, Antimony tartrate. Specific gravity, 2.6. Formula, 
K (Sb 0) O' It occurs in colorless, transparent crystals, or 

a white, granular powder. A. This substance is used by Mr. Latur and 
others as one of the ingredients of their preservative fluids. 

Terebenthene. Specific gravity, 0.8767. Formula, C w H n . A 
colorless, mobile liquid, obtained from oil of turpentine, having its pe¬ 
culiar odor. According to Koch it is efficient as an antiseptic in the 
proportion of 1 to 70000. 

Thymol. Synonym: Methyl-propyl-phenol. Formula, C 10 H n 0. 
Large, transparent, colorless crystals, having an aromatic odor, a pun¬ 
gent aromatic taste, and neutral in their action on litmus paper. A. & 
D. Thymol is spoken of by Koch as one of the few reliable antiseptics, 
and Buchholtz and Andrews' experiments seem to show that it is reliable 
in as weak a solution as 1 to 2000. It is placed by Miguel in his third 
class of “powerful antiseptics." 

Tin Chloride. Synonyms: Protochloride of tin, Stannous chloride, 
Tin crystals. Formula, SnCl 2 -\-2H 2 O. A crystalline salt obtained by 
dissolving tin in hydrochloric acid. 

Trinitropiienol. (See Picric Acid.) 

Turpentine. Synonyms: Essence of turpentine, Spirits of tur¬ 
pentine. Specific gravity, 0.86. The volatile product of the distil¬ 
lation of turpentine. A colorless, neutral, limpid liquid. The essential 
oils are chemically identical with turpentine, therefore it is one of the 
oldest of chemical preservatives, for embalming by the Egyptians de¬ 
pended largely upon the essential oils contained in spices. According to 
Gannal, essence of turpentine can only serve for small pieces ; it is not 
easily transported, alters several of the tissues, and becomes thick and 
clouded. 

Vinegar. (See Acetic Acid). Celsus writing in the first century 
of our era, insisted upon the value of vinegar in the time of epidemics, 
as did other writers of antiquity. 

White Arsenic. (See*Arsenious Acid.) 

White Vitriol. (See Zinc Sulphate.) 

Wood Naphtha. Synonyms: Acetone, Pyroacetic spirit. Specific 
gravity, 0.7921. Formula, CfifO. A limpid, colorless liquid, soluble 
in water, alcohol and ether. A. Owing to its cheapness, pyroxylic spirit 
has been extensively used in England as a substitute for alcohol in the 
arts and manufactures. 

36 


562 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


Zinc Chloride. Formula, ZnCl 2 . A colorless, coherent, granular 
powder, or colorless, opaque rods or fragments, very deliquescent and 
caustic. It is soluble in water, glycerine, alcohol, and ether. A. & D. 
Chloride of zinc, when strong, coagulates albumen, and absorbs ammonia 
and sulphureted hydrogen. It is largely used in disinfecting fluids. In 
any ordinary solution Koch found it absolutely incapable of killing the 
spores of splenic fever. While it destroys putrid odors, it has no smell 
of its own. Chloride of zinc seems to act by its union with the water of 
the tissues, from which the water is extracted. From that time the pre¬ 
servative power diminishes. 

Zinc Sulphate. Synonyms: Sulphate of zinc, White vitriol. 
Formula, ZnSO^f-711.,0. This substance occurs in colorless, transparent 
crystals, or acicular needles. It is readily soluble in water and glycerine, 
but insoluble in absolute alcohol. A. & D. One of the feebler anti¬ 
septics. A solution of zinc sulphate and common salt has been highly 
recommended for the disinfection of clothing, bed linen, etc. Koch 
tested the power of white vitriol to kill the spores of splenic fever, but 
found it incapable of so doing. 

Objections: It cannot be mixed with alkalies, earths, bicarbonatss, 
sulphides, lime-water, or vegetable astringents. 


DEODORIZING AGENTS AND METHODS. 


Oxymuriated mercury. 
Carbolic acid. 
Bicarbonate of potash. 


Chloride of zinc. 
Corrosive sublimate. 
The hyposulphites. 


Aluminia salts. 


Eklund’s method, recently advocated, as the simplest to arrest putre¬ 
faction, is to inject a saturated solution of common salt, with a little 
depurated “ferric acid” and boracic acid, into the arteries of cadavers. 
In cases of death from infectious diseases, it would be advisable to inject 
first a solution of biniodide of mercury, or of bichloride of mercury, dis¬ 
solved in a hot solution of iodide of potassium, this again in alcohol, or 
a solution of chloride of ammonium or common salt. The trunk and 
extremities of the cadaver should be wrapped with a layer, 5 to 8 
millimetres thick, of lime packed into long flat bags that can be wrapped 
like a belt around those parts. 

It would also be desirable that the police ordinances relating to the 
burying of the dead contain provisions with a view to enforcing the fol¬ 
lowing features: That the bottoms of coffins be made impermeable to 
water, and be covered with a layer 5 to 8 millimetres thick, of substances 
possessing absorbent properties, such as dry earth, the crushed acicular 



ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 503 

leaves of resinous trees, ashes, saw-dust, and charcoal dust. Just before 
closing the coffin the hands and face should be covered with lime. 

Another method is that proposed by one Jacob Reese who thinks 
that all animal substances can be indefinitely preserved in air-tight steel 
casks provided they be packed therein under pressure of 80 pounds to 
the inch, and at the same time injected with a three per cent solution 
of boracic and tartaric acid with a little common salt. 

Architect Baumann’s magnificent project for the city of Chicago is to 
“ erect a monster edifice, resembing the ancient Tower of Babel, with a 
gradual ascending stairway, which might be carried to any height desir¬ 
able, from twenty-five to fifty stories high. The structure should be 
architecturally beautiful and classic in design, and built of solid ma¬ 
sonry. Thousands of vaults could be arranged in this building, which 
could be sold or rented to parties for single interments or for the accom¬ 
modation of families. The wall of each department should be of stone, 
with ornamental entrances, and the entire building hollow to the sky. 

At all times a huge fire is to be kept burning in the basement of this 
hollow center, which would effectually destroy all the poisonous vapors 
and gases which might arise from the process of human decomposition. 
All that is required to carry out this scheme, the enthusiastic inventor 
claims, is an act of incorporation and $500,000; and then Chicago could 
vie with Egypt in the magnificent and colossal character of the pyra¬ 
midal mausoleum.” 

Possibly this might be conjoined with “ Judge HuletPs ” cementa¬ 
tion method, which consists in imbedding the naked body in cement, 
whose advantages, as set forth in the inventor’s language are as follows: 

“An unvitrified mineral coating around a dead body of four inches 
in thickness will confine the gases produced by decomposition for from 
one to two months before any diffusion of the gases through the pores 
of the covering is perceptible; and by the sluggish filtration but small 
quantities can be discovered at any given time unless confined. 

“This mode of cementing the dead will give double the capacity to 
our cemeteries, as the space now occupied by one may contain two bodies, 
one upon the other. 

“ To sum up the whole matter, w r e say: First, the cementation of the 
dead is economical in every point of view. Second, it possesses all the 
sanitary protection that is requisite to the health of the living. Third, 
it brings mortality to the same level before burial that it will assume 
after by uniformity of process. Fourth, it forever preserves form and 
features, as no other process possibly can. d he latter may be regarded 
as a myth, but no more so than to fill our dwellings with sculpture, paint¬ 
ings, and photographs of the dead, mere shadows of the real, while the 
positive features of our dead have been positively rescued from destruction 


5G4 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


from any causalty (subject to inspection, should we so desire) by this 
]3rocess of cementation. ” 

Which of these may be the method of the future is unprofitable to 
speculate, but doubtless in the coming years there will be improvements 
on our present methods. And among these will be the discovery of 
improved bleaching agents, for the list at present is meager, and the 
action of many of those most used is uncertain and disappointing. 


• BLEACHING AGENTS. 

Strong Phenol. In an alcoholic solution of corrosive sublimate. 
Powdered Chloral 
Peroxide of Hydrogen. 

Bromine Water. 

Chlorine Water. 

Chloride of Lime. Followed by oxalic acid. 

Sulphite of Soda. Strong solution, followed by oxalic acid. 

White Wine Vinegar; must not be used on the lips as it turns them 
black; otherwise excellent. 

Hot Water. Must not be used in dropsical cases; otherwise good. (S.) 
Strong Acetic Acid. 

Pyroligenous Acid. Afterwards wash with warm water. 

Strong Salt Brine, etc. 


PROPRIETARY AND PATENT PRESERVATIVES AND 

METHODS 

are almost legion in number, and unsatisfactory in results. No sys¬ 
tematic examination of these has yet been made, but like other patent 
preparations they are all made first to sell, and second to benefit, if pos¬ 
sible, the purchaser. Among the best of these proprietary antiseptics 
are 

CONDY’S FLUID, 

which is a solution of the manganates and permanganates of soda, 
which see. 

sir wm. burnett’s solution 

contains 15 ounces chloride of zinc to l-j- gallons of distilled water. 
It is prepared by dissolving zinc in muriatio acid to saturation, and then 
diluting as above. It was patented in 1840, and is still one of the most 
reliable fluids for the preservation of animal and vegetable substances, 
which should be immersed in it for two or three days and then left to 
dry in the air. 





ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


505 


BROMO-CHLORALUM, 

is the name given by the Tildens to a solution of the chloride of alumin¬ 
ium, which was first introduced as a disinfectant by Professor Gamgee, 
although it had previously been tried by Gannal. (See Aluminium Chlo¬ 
ride.) Probably a waste product of chemical manufacture. Composition of 
chloralum, according to one analysis is 

Aluminium Chloride, 20 ounces. 

Calcium Sulphate, J “ 

Bromo-chloralum , contains aluminium, with traces of calcium sul¬ 
phate, according to another analyst. 

LABARRAQUE^S DISINFECTING SOLUTION. 

Prepared as follows: 

Chloride of Lime, 1 pound. 

Carbonate of Soda, 2 pounds. 

Water 1% gallons. 

Dissolve the carbonate of soda in three pints of water by the aid of 
heat; to the remainder of the water add, by small portions at a time, the 
chloride of lime previously well triturated, stirring the mixture after 
each addition; set the mixture by for several hours that the dregs may 
subside, then decant the clear liquid and mix it with the solution of car¬ 
bonate of soda. Lastly, decant the clear liquor from the precipitated 
carbonate of lime, pass it through a linen cloth and keep it in bottles se¬ 
cluded from the light. 

It is a colorless alkaline solution, having a faint odor of chlorine, and 
an alkaline taste; it owes its antiseptic properties to containing hypoclo- 
rous acid, which is readily liberated by the addition of even a weak 
acid and, on exposure to the air, by the absorption of carbonic acid. 

Commercial Labarraque’s solution contains about two ounces available 
chlorine to the gallon. According to Duggan the hypochlorites are the 
only safe disinfecting agents for discharges containing albuminous mat¬ 
ter . 

LEDOYEN ? S DISINFECTING FLUID, 

which is greatly esteemed abroad, is a solution of nitrate of lead in 
water in proportion to two ounces of the salt to one pint of water, and 
may be prepared by disolving 13^ oz. litharge in 12 oz. nitric acid, and 
diluting with water to 6 pints. 

EAU DE JAVELLE 

is a solution of the hypochlorite of potassium and hence is very similar 
in its action to Labarraque’s solution, which contains the hypochlorite 
of sodium. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


56(5 


ENGLISH PATENT DISINFECTANTS. 

The following is a list of those exhibited at the recent International 
Health Exhibition at London: 

Sharp & Go’s. Disinfectant. 

Austin’s Antiseptic. 

Tuson’s Disinfectants, Liquid and Powder. 

Thy mo C resol. 

Concentrated Carbolated Creasote Disinfecting Fluid. 

Calvert’s Phenol and Disinfecting Powders. 

Jey’s Perfect Purifier Disinfectant. 

Sanitas Disinfectant. (See Formula No. 93.) 

Affinitas Chlorozone. 

Condy’s Fluid. (See Page 564.) 

Billings' Thymol Disinfecting Fluid. 

New Carbolic Sanitary Company Products. 

Antimicrobe. 

McDugall’s Carbolic and Sulphurous Disinfectant. 

Overbarry’s Sulphur Disinfectant. 

Clutterbuck’s Chemical Closet Cleaner. 

Oxychlorogene Chloro-Manganese. 

Epulixon. 

Sanitizer Camphorein. 

Eucalyptozone. 

Pixene Crimson Salt Company. 

Ferralum. 

Cupralum. 

Ellerman’s Disinfectant. 

Larmande’s Antimephitic Powder. 

Eau De Javelle. (See page 565.) 

Grantsville Carbolic Alkali. 

Phenol Sodicpie. 

Collins’ Disinfecting Powder. 

Littler’s Soluble Phenyl. 

Liquor Zinci Choridi. (Squibbs.) 

Feuchtwanger’s Disinfectant. 

To the above may be added those of more or less frequent use in 
this country, viz.: 

Platt’s Chlorides. (Formula 75.) 

Girondin Disinfectant. (Formula 86.) 

Williamson’s Sanitary Fluid. (Formula 86.) 

Bromo-Chloralum. (See page 565.) 

Blackman’s Disinfectant. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


567 


Burkhardt's Disinfectant. 

“ Listerine." 

“ Omnico." 

Stypium, United States Trade Mark, 12,786. 

Inordorine, United States Trade Mark 12,784. 

Campliorine, United States Trade Mark, 12,481. 

E. G. Washburn Fluids, Springfield, Mass. 

G. M. Rhodes' Fluid, Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Mills & Lacey Fluid, Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Clarke Chemical Fluid, Springfield, Ohio. 

Champion, Springfield, Ohio. 

B. F. Ray Fluid, Utica, N.Y. 

Johnson & Shaw Fluid, Boston, Mass. 

Crane & Allens. 

Egyptian Embalmer. 

Corpus Balsaming. 

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 

But it would be useless to further multiply the list for there barely 
remains sufficient space for a few general conclusions, viz.: 

I. “ Disinfection is the destruction of the poisons of infectious or 

contagious diseases. Deodorizers are not necssarily disinfectants, and 
disinfectants do not necessarily have an odor; . . . and no reliance 

can be placed on disinfectants simply because they smell of chlorine or 
carbolic acid, or possess the power of permanganates. ... In gen¬ 
eral, j:>roprietary disinfectants with high-sounding names are practically 
worthless." Chandler. 

II. The disinfecting power of any antiseptic is in inverse proportion 
to the age of the putrefying materials; e. g., meat to be kept six days 
needs ten times less than that to be kept sixty days. 

III. There is no parallelism between the disinfecting action of an 
antiseptic and its action on microbes; e. g., potassic permaganate has no 
action on the last, but is the most powerful disinfectant. 


RELATIVE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT SPORICIDES. 

This subject has been carefully studied by different methods, and 
with somewhat different results by Dr. Koch and Dr. Miguel. Koch's 
method was to employ rabbits sick with anthrax whose organisms are 
found in the form of minute, round micrococci spores, which afterward 
develop, under favorable conditions, into slightly larger rod-shaped 
bodies or bacilli. It was found, though this was indeed already known, 
that its spores had a much greater vital resistance than the bacilli. 





5G8 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


From Koch’s careful investigations, lie concludes that the only cer¬ 
tain sporicides are chlorine, bromine, and corrosive sublimate; and 
that to arrest development only corrosive sublimate, certain ethereal oils, 
thymol and allyl-alcohol are available. Bromine vapors are recom¬ 
mended for confined spaces. Chlorine is a little less satisfactory, but 
more so than formerly supposed. In all cases where neither heat 
nor gases are available, corrosive sublimate, and indeed all mercurial 
salts are recommended. 

A solution of 1 to 1000 of the mercuric chloride, sulphate or 
nitrate, kills the resisting spores in ten minutes; and, indeed, simple 
moistening of the earth containing the spores with this solution is suffi¬ 
cient to arrest their power of development. Solutions of 1 in 1000 
to 1 in 15000 are sufficient to kill micro-organisms. The poisonous 
action of such diluted solutions may he disregarded. The cost also is 
far below that of carbolic acid. 

Koch tested the power of sulphuric acid, chloride of zinc, borax, 
white vitrol, and other substances. He found them absolutely incapa¬ 
ble, in any ordinary solution, of killing the spores. Such substances as 
arsenic, quinine, and perchloride of iron would, in one or two per cent 
solution, kill the organisms in the course of six or ten days, but were, 
on the whole, quite feeble disinfectants. 

On the other hand a few substances only were found to be very active. 
Thus, two per cent solutions of bromine, iodine and chlorine and of cor¬ 
rosive sublimate (the last being the best) killed the spores within a day. 
The power of these latter substances to prevent the activity and develop¬ 
ment of the baccilli was found to be very remarkable. Thus, 1 part 
of sublimate in 500,000 of water would completely check the activity of 
the organisms. Certain volatile oils, such as oil of thyme and tere- 
benthene, were also efficient in dilutions of 1 to 80,000 and 1 to 
70,000. And further, as one of the results of his experiments, Koch 
came to the conclusion that only bromide, chlorine, iodine and corrosive 
sublimate, and the few oils of the class referred to', were of value as dis¬ 
infecting agents. 

BUCHHOLTZ AND ANDREWS’ EXPERIMENTS. 

According to these investigators, the substances given below arrest 
development in bacterial solutions when added in the following propor¬ 


tion : 

1. Corrosive sublimate. 1.20,000 

1. Thymol. 1.2.000 

3. Sodium benzoate. 1.2,000 

4. Creasote . 1.2,000 

5. Benzoic acid. 1.1,000 







ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 569 

6. Salicylic acid. 1.666 

7. Eucalyptol. 1.666 

8. Chloral hydrate. 1.400 

9. Carbolic acid. 1.200 

10. Quinine. 1.200 

11. Arsenic. 1.166 

12. Sulphuric acid. 1.151 

13. Boracic acid. 1.133 

14. Cupric sulphate. 1.100 

15. Ferrous sulphate. 1.100 

16. Hydrochloric acid. 1.75 

17. Zinc sulphate. 1.50 

18. Alcohol (Ethyl). 1.50 

19. Boro-glycerine. 1.50 

20. Glycerine. 1.44 

21. Hyposulphite of soda. 1.4 

Miguel’s table does not exactly agree with Buchholtz’s, but for pur¬ 
pose of comparison is also given in parts to a thousand. 

miguel’s table. 

Biniodide of mercury. 0.025 

Iodide of silver... 0.03 

Oxygenated water. 0.05 

Bichloride of mercury. 0.07 

Nitrate of silver. 0.08 

Osmic acid. 0.15 

Chromic acid. 0.20 

Iodine. 0.25 

Chlorine. . . 0.25 

Hydrocyanic acid. 0.40 

Bromine. 0.60 

Chloroform. 0.80 

Sulphate of copper. 0.90 

Salicylic acid. 1-00 

Benzoic acid. 1*10 

Chromate of potassium. 1.30 

Picric acid. 1*30 

Ammonia gas. 1-19 

Thymic acid. 2.00 

Chlorides of lead, cobalt and nickel. 2.10 

Mineral acids.2.00 to 3.00 

Ninitrobenzine. 2.60 

Essence of bitter almonds. 3*00 










































ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


570 


Carbolic acid. 3.20 

Permanganate of potassium. 3.50 

Aniline. 4.00 

Divers alums. 4.50 

Tannin. 4.80 

Sulphydrate of sodium. 5.00 

Arsenious acid. 0.00 

Boric acid. 7.00 

Hydrate of chloral. 0.50 

Salicylate of soda. 10.00 

Sulphate of the protoxide of iron. 11.00 

Amylic alcohol. 14.00 

Sulphuric ether. 22.00 

Butylic alcohol. 35.00 

Propylic alcohol. 60.00 

Borate of soda (borax). 70.00 

Ethylic alcohol. 95.00 

Sulphocyanide of potassium. 120.00 

Iodide of potassium. 140.00 

Prussiate of potash. 185.00 

Glycerine (officinal). 225.00 

Urea (natural). 260.00 

Hyposulphite of soda. 275.00 

Chlorate of soda. 400.00 


N. B. Table given above indicates in grammes the quantities re¬ 
quired to make imputrescible one litre of beef tea. 

II. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The following alphabetical list from PaulePs Conservation ties Bois 
gives a complete list of all the writers *on the subjects of antiseptics and 
disinfectants from 1669 to 1874. Those marked A are concerning the 
preservation of foods, (B) of woods, and (C) of bodies. 


1859-64. Academie hollandaise, B. 

1854. 

Baist, B. 

1789. Acrel, B. 

1852. 

Balard, C. 

1846. Ador, B. 

1846. 

Banner and Venzat, B. 

1808. Admiralty (English), B. 

1856. 

Barlow, B. 

1860. Armstrong, B. 

1730. 

Baster, B. 

1837. Annaberg (Society of), B. 

1871. 

Baudet, A. 

1853. Apelt, B. 

1848. 

Baudet, B. 

1800(cir). Appert, A. 

1669. 

Becher, C. 

1838. Ardoin, B. 

1852. 

Benda, B. 

1839. Aroza, B. 

1838. 

Bethell, B. 

XI. Cen. Avicenne, A. 

1824. 

Bill, B. 



























ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


571 


1858. 

Blondin, A. 

1859. 

1859. 

Blythe and Dorsett, B. 

1859. 

1870. 

Bonserret Gamgee, A. 

1871. 

1837. 

Boucherie (Dr.), B. 

1872. 

1841. 

Bourdon, B. 

1846. 

1848. 

Boutigny and Hutin, B. 

1843. 

1825. 

Braconnot, C. 

1770. 

1831. 

Breant, B. 


1848. 

Brochard, B. 

1740. 

1847. 

Brochard and Watteen, B. 


1836. 

Bronner, B. 

1845. 

1835. 

Brunei, B. 

1840. 

1844. 

Burkes, B. 

1837. 

1838. 

Burnett, B. 

1851. 

1847. 

Busse, B. 

1852, 

1815. 

Bowden, B. 

1852. 

1810. 

Cadet de Gassicourt, B. 

1862. 

1818. 

Callender, B. 

1847. 

1829. 

Carey, B. 

1860. 

1840. 

Carney, B. 

1850. 

1857. 

Carthage, B. . 

1825. 

1867. 

Cerio, A. 

1863. 

1813. 

Champy (Baron), B. 

1845. 

1815. 

Chapmann, B. 

1837-41 

1839. 

Charpentier, B. 

1870. 

1800(cir).Chaussier, C. 

1848. 


Chemalle, B. 

1847. 

1833. 

Chemnitz, B. 

1637. 

1832-36. 

Chevalier, B. 


1853. 

Chevalier, C. 

1828. 

1845. 

Claudot, B. 

1837. 

1865. 

Cochinchinois, B. 

1833. 

1768. 

Constable, B. 

1837. 

1812-22. 

Cook, B. 

1801. 

1859. . 

Cormier, A. 

1856. 

1824-47. 

Cox, B. 

1846. 

1857-67. 

Crepin, B. 

1861. 

1818. 

Dagneau, B. 

1857. 

1853. 

Dering, B. 

1756. 


Desiccating Company, B. 

1825. 

1849. 

Dickschen, B. 

1826. 

1861. 

DingleEs Journal, B. 

1874. 

1821. 

Dinsdale, B. 

1856. 


Dorsett, B. 

Dorsett and Blythe, A. 
Dubrnnfaut, A. 

Dumas (Institute) 

Dupre (Dr.), 0. 

Earl, B. 

Encyclopedic Economique, 
B. ^ • 

Fagot, B. 

Fastier, A. 

Favrin, B. 

Flesselle, B. 

Flocton, B. 
Fontaine-Moreau, C. 
Fontenau, B. 

Fontenay (cie), B. 
Forestier (Ing.), B. 
Fournier-Caillot, B. 
Fragneau, B. 

Francois (Ing.), B. 

Fuchs, B. 

Fumet-Dejort, B. 

Fussey(de) and Pelletier,B 
Gannal. A. C. 

Gamgee and Bonser, A. 
Gemini (de), B. 

Giberton, B. 

Glauber, A. 

Goadby, C. 

Gossier, B. 

Gotthill, B. 

Gouezon, B. 

Granville (Dr.), B. 
Grasmann, B. 

Grasse t, B. 

Grenon, B. 

Guibert, B. 

Guyon (Dr.), B. 

Hales, B. 

Hancok, B. 

Hartig, B. 

Hatzfeld, B. 

Haut de Lassus, etc., B. 



3 




572 ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


1850. 

Hochesaugt, B. 

1848. 

May, B. 

1705. 

Homberg, B. 

1840-64. 

Melsens (Prof.), B. 

1848. 

Hoene-Wronsky, B. 

1844. 

Mermet, B. 

1772. 

Hoelemann, B. 

1851. 

Meyer d’Uslar, B. 

1824. 

Houston, A. 

1778. 

Migneron, B. 

1874. 

Hubert, B. 

1847. 

Millet, B. 

1854. 

Hugon, B. 

1835. 

Moll, B. 

1848. 

Hutin and Boutigny, B. 

1846. 

Monicault (de), B. 

1767. 

Jackson, B. 

1825. 

Monteith, B. 

1855. 

Jackson, B. 

1866. 

Morgan, A. 

1855. 

Jobart, A. 

1841. 

Muenzig, B. 

1854. 

Jousselin. 

1822. 

Newman, B. 

1846. 

Knab, B. 

1826. 

Newmarch, B. 

1825. 

Knowles, B. 

1805. 

Nystrom, B. 

1821. 

(?) Knowles and Davy, B. 

1825. 

Oxford, B. 

1823. 

Kyan, B. 

1779. 

Pallas, B. 

1822. 

Lacroix, B. 

1821. 

Parkes, B. 

1847. 

Lafollie, B. 

1843. 

Parkes, B. 

1809. 

Landwirthschaftliche, B. 

1820. 

Pasley, B. 

1826. 

Langton, B. 

1865. 

Pasteur (de V Institut), A. 

1862. 

Lapparent (de), B. 

1835. 

Payen (?), B. 

1814. 

Lambert, C. 


Payen 

1853. 

Le Chatleir, B. 

1846. 

Payn, A. 

1848. 

Lecour, B. 

1843. 

Payn, B. 

1857. 

Lege & Fleury-Pironnet 

1857. 

Peligot (Prof.), B. 


B. 

1806. 

Perkins, B. 

1847. 

Lemaitre de Rabodanges, 

1872. 

Petit, C. 


C. 

1846. 

Petit, B. 

1857. 

Lemattais, etc., A. 

1861. 

Petit jean, B. 

1837. 

Letellier, B. 

1818. 

Philosophical Magazine, B. 

1846. 

Levalley-Duperron, B. 

1844. 

Pigne, O. 

1839. 

Levien, B. 

1866. 

Pienkowski, C. 

9 9 

• • 

Lignac (de), A. 

1850. 

Pollack, B. 

1811. 

Lukin, B. 

1841. 

Pons, B. 

1824. 

Luscombe, B. 

1822. 

Prechit, B. 

1830. 

Mackensie, A. 

1848. 

Quatrefages, B. 

1805. 

Mackonochie, B. 

1872, 

Rabuteau and Papillon, C. 

1864. 

Manes, B. 

1818. 

Raimond, C. 

1841. 

Margary (Loyd), B. 

1845. 

Ransome, B. 

1830. 

Marolles (Cte de), B. 

1852. 

Raspail, C. 

1828. 

Marsh, B. 

1855. 

Real, B. • 

9 

• 

Masson, A. 

1833. 

Recueil Industriel, B. 

1838. 

Mathias-Mayor, C. 

1740. 

Reed, B. 



ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 573 

1866. 

Redwood, A. 

1834. 

Strutzki, B. 

1846. 

Renard-Perrin, etc., B. 

1854. 

Sucquet, C. 

1829. 

Reybery, B. 


Sweeney, A. 

1862. 

Robert (de), B. 

1832. 

Tauffler, C. 


Robin, C. 

1861. 

Technologiste (le), B. 

1822. 

Roquin, B. 

1872. 

Tellier, A. 

1862. 

Rottier, B. 

1846. 

Testud de Beauregard and 

1845 (cir. 

)Sace (Dr.), A. 


Renard-Perrin, B. 

1845. 

Saint (de), B. 

1856. 

Thellier-Yerrier, B. 

1845-48 

Saint-Preuve, B. 

1855. 

Theroulde, C. 

1772. 

Salberg, B. 


Thwaites, C. 

1825. 

Samson, A. 

1844. 

Tissier, B. 

1820. 

Sanderson, B. 

1829. 

Toursel, C. 

1820. 

Sargent, B. 

1838. 

Treffy, B. 

1824. 

Schmidt, C. 

1846. 

Yenzat and Banner, B. 

1851. 

Schweppe, B. 

1854. 

Yendeil, A. 

1856. 

Senweppe and Trottier, B. 

1852. 

Yidegrain, B. 

1815. 

Semple, B. 

1848. 

Yiolette, B. 

1845. 

Silvestri, C. 

1858. 

Yohl (Dr.), B. 

1822. 

Societe d’Encouragement, 


Yulpian, C. 


B. 

1848. 

Warington, A. 


Sloper, A. 

1847. 

Watteen and Brochard, B. 

1830. 

Soubeyran, C. 

1824. 

Watterton, B. 

1854. 

Souverain, A. 

1847. 

Watterstedt, B. 

1832. 

Starling* Benson, B. 

1798. 

White, B. 

1831. 

Stevenson, B. 

1798. 

Wolmeister, B. 

1848. 

Stoeckhardt, 

1850(cir. 

)Wright (Dr.), B. 


In addition to the previous list the following books, treating espec¬ 
ially of the preservation of the dead and kindred subjects, should be 
added: 

The Art of Embalming. — Thos. Greenhill, London, 1705. 

A History of Egyptian Mummies, etc.—J. T. Pettigrew, London, 
1834. 

An Essay on Egyptian Mummies, etc. — A. B. Granville. 

Description of an Egyptian Mummy, with an Account of the Opera¬ 
tion of Embalming, etc. — J. C. Warren, Boston, 1838. 

Treatise on Creosote, with Considerations on the Embalmment of the 
Egyptians. — J. 11. Cormack. 

Rawlinson’s Herodotus. — Yol. II., page 141. 

Anatomia Reformata, Concinna Corporis Humana, etc.— Stephen 
Blancardus, 1G87. 

Methodus Balsamundi Corpora Humana, aliaque Majora, sine Evis- 
ceratione. Gab. Clauderus. 




574 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


De Conditura, sen, ut vulgo, loquntur, do Balsamatione Cadaverum 
Humanorum.—J. D. Wilvissheim, Argent. 1809. 

Grascorum Extispiciis.— Cornelius Cuntz, Gottingen, 1820. 

Traite des Embaumements.— Louis Penicher, Paris, 1009. 

Manuel d*Anatomie, etc. — J. A". Marjolin, M. D. Paris, 1815. 
Traite de la Parfaita Method Embaumer les Corps.—James Guille- 
meau. Paris, 1009. 

Traite des Embaumements.— Gannal. Paris, 1838. 

Das Einbalsameln des Leichen.— Magnus. Brunswick, 1839. 

The Art of Embalming, etc.— Tlios. Gardner. 

Conservation des Bois et de diverses Matieres Organiques.— Paulet. 
Sepulture and its Methods.— S. Wickes. Philadelphia, 1884. 

The Undertakers* Manual.— August Renouard. 

Treatise ou Embalming.— Lessley. Toledo, 1884. 

Text Book on Embalming.— Clark. Springfield, 1880. 

MAGAZINE ARTICLES. 

Strange Burial Orders. All the Year Round, XLI — 255. 

Burial Places and Burial. S. E. Bishop. West. Lit. J., 1 — 401. 
Barbarous Burial. Sharp, 8 — 70. 9 — 33. 

Burial Practices. Modern Review, 104 — 299. 

Burial Vagaries. Chambers* Journal, XLIX — 073. 

Burials. G. Hill. Sharpe, 34 — 97. 

Burial Places. W. Mitchell. Lippincott, XIX — 590. 

Burial Places and Wakes. Penny Magazine, 13 — 779 — 283. 

In Ancient Rome. Am. Arch., 4 —127. 

Heathen and Christian Burial. Household Words, 143. 

The Last Homes. F. Talbot. Belgravia, vol. 27 —100. 

Pagan and Christian Sepulchers. The Living Age, vol. 80, page 
481. 

The Silent Majority. J. H. Brown. Harper, 49 — 408. 

Simple and Sanitary Burial. S. P. Day. Victoria Magazine, vol. 
32, page 570; vol. 33, pages 272 — 275. 

Burial Customs. D. W. Cheever. North American, 93 — 108. 
Burial Customs and Obitual Law. Mrs. A. D. Garrick. National 
Quarterly, vol. 4, page 03. 

Burial in Scotland. Chambers’ Journal, 25 — 204. 

Burial Eccentricities. Chambers* Journal, 54 — 593. 

Burial,# R. II. Vickers. Once a Week, vol. 9, page 035. 

Burial. J. Brasher. Christian Examiner, vol. 31, pages 137 — 
281. 

Ancient Graves and Their Contents. National Quarterly, vol. 22, 
page 315. 


ANCIENT AND MODERN ANTISEPTICS, ETC. 


575 


» Burial and Burning in the East. F. R. Feudge. Lippincott’s, vol. 
13, page 593. 

A Day with the Dead. M. A. Dodge. Atlantic, vol. 6, page 326. 
Disposal of the Dead. B. W. Richardson. Popular Science Review, 
vol. 14, page 592. 


THE END. 



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